DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY

Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga Philippines

Tel No. (6345)458 0021; Fax (6345)458 0021 Local 211

URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
[email protected]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

[email protected]

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES 213

Prepared By:
Bryan James D. Rangel
Heinjhel Micah D. Aquino
Jhio M. Arquiza

BSME 2D

Submitted to :
Redimar C. Simbillo, ME, SO1, MEnM
 CHAPTER 1
CONVERSION AND VECTORS

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Recognize the fundamentals of conversion

 Describe the significance of unit conversion for practical uses.

 Exhibit the capacity to convert between various measuring units, such as length,
mass, time, and velocity.

2. Use Conversion Strategies

 Provide a methodical solution to unit conversion challenges.

3. Understand Vector Ideas

 Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities.

 Describe the direction and magnitude that make up a vector.

4. Execute Vector Operations

 Vectors can be represented mathematically and graphically.

 Use trigonometric functions to break down a vector into its constituent parts.
 Graphical techniques, such as the Polygon and Parallelogram Methods, are used
to add and remove vectors.

Engineering Mechanics
 The subject of Engineering Mechanics is that branch of Applied Science, which
deals with the laws and principles of Mechanics, along with their application to
engineering problems. As a matter of fact, knowledge of Engineering Mechanics is very
essential for an engineer in planning, designing, and construction of his various type of
structures and machines. In order to take up his job more skillfully an engineer must
pursue the study of engineering mechanics in a most systematic and scientific manner.

Engineering Mechanics is divided into two major parts, namely Statics and Dynamics.

Statics - deals with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies at rest.

Dynamics – deals with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies in
motion. The subject of Dynamics may be further sub-divided into the
following two branches: 1. Kinetics, and 2. Kinematics.

Scalar Quantities Versus Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities
The scalar quantities (or sometimes known as scalars) are those quantities which
have magnitude only such as length, mass, time, distance, volume, density,
temperature, speed etc.

Vector Quantities
The vector quantities (or sometimes known as vectors) are those quantities
which have both magnitude and direction such as force, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, momentum etc.
Following are important features of Vector Quantities:

 Representation of a Vector
 Unit Vector
 Equal Vector
 Like Vectors
 Addition of Vectors

Graphical Method
A. Parallelogram Method
Used for joining two vectors when the two vectors to be added join their tails to
form the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram.

B. Polygon Method
Plotting the first vector from the origin and, if the second vector's tale is tied to the
first vector's arrowhead, connecting it to the origin, gives the resultant or the vector's
magnitude.

Component of a Vector

A vector can be expressed as a sum of a two or more vectors or components of

original vector. Finding the components is also called resolving the vector into the
components (vertical and horizontal).

A single vector (resultant) is usually divided into two vectors that are
perpendicular to each other. These two vectors are called components and the process
of splitting the vector into its components is called resolution. The components are
normally along the X and Y axis of the rectangular coordinate system.

Resolving the vector into two components:

∑Fy = Fy1 + Fy2 + Fy3 + ...
∑Fx = Fx1 + Fx2 + Fx3 +
Conversion of units
- represents a different unit of measurement that has the same property.

PREFIXES FOR THE POWER OF TEN CONVERSION

Conversion Factor of Common Units
Symbol Name Factor
y Yocto 10-24 Length:
z Zepto 10-21
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
a Atto 10-18
1 foot = 12 inches
f Femto 10-15
p Pico 10-12 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
n Nano 10-9 1 yard = 3 feet
μ Micro 10-6 1 furlong = 40 rods
m Milli 10-3 1 rod = 5.5 yards
c Centi 10-2 1 meter = 3.28 feet
d Deci 10-1 1 mile = 5280 feet
da Deka 10
h Hecto 102
Time:
k Kilo 103
1 day = 24 hours
M Mega 106
G Giga 109 = 1440 minutes
T Tera 1012 = 86400 seconds
P Peta 1015 1 hour = 60 minutes
E Exa 1018 = 3600 seconds
Z Zeta 1021 1 minute = 60 seconds
Y Yota 1024 1 year = 365 days
1 leap year = 366 seconds
1 week = 7 days
SYSTEM OF UNITS

SI (METRIC) ENGLISH CGS Temperature:

Length kilometer Feet centimeter
5
9
Mass Kilogram slug gram °C = (°F - 32)
Weight Newton pound dyne
9
Time second second Second
5
°F = (°C) + 32

K = °C + 273

°R = °F + 460

Pressure:
1 atmosphere = 760 millimeter of mercury
= 760 torr
= 101.325 kilo Pascual
= 101325 Pascal
pound
inch2
= 14.7

1 kilo pascual = 1000 Pa

1 bar = 100000 Pa
Mass and Weight:
1 Metric Ton = 1000 kilograms
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
= 1000 grams
1 pound = 16 ounce
1 milligram = .001 gram
1 kilogram force = 9.81 Newton
pound mass−feet
second2
1 pound force = 32.2

Area:
1 hectare = 10000 squared meter

Work, Energy and Heat:

1 British Thermal unit = 252 cal
= 778 feet-pound
= 1055 Joule

1 cal = 4.184 Joule

1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter
= 107 erg

1 erg = 1 dyne-centimeter

gram−centimeter
second2
1 dyne =1

Volume:
1 gallon = 3.785 Liters
1 Liter = 1000 cubic centimeter
1 quarts = 2 pints
1 US gallon = 8 pints
1 cubic foot = 7.481 gallons
1 cubic meter = 1000 Liters

Power:
Joule
second
1 Watt =1

1 Horsepower = 746 Watts

feet−pound
second
= 550

1 Kilowatt = 1000 watts

Kilojoule
hour
1 Boiler Horsepower = 35314
Sample Problem:

1. Convert 185 yards per minute to miles per hour.

yards 3 feet 1 mile 60 minutes
185 x x x =6.31 miles/hour
minute 1 yard 5280 feet 1 hr

2. A person walks 10m in the direction of 37°N of E. How far from the N and how far
from the E he had walked?

For Y component (N) :

O
S=
H
Y component
sin 37 °=
10 m
Y component =10 msin 37 ° ¿ 6.02 m
For X component (E) :
A
C=
H
X component
cos 37 ° =
10 m
x component=10 m cos 37 °=7.99 m

3. Plot the following vectors using both graphical method and find the
resultant/magnitude of the vector and the direction of the resultant using analytical
method. V1 = 300 cm/sec, W. V2 = 400 cm/sec, S

2 2
R=√ V 1 +V 2

√( )(
cm 2
)
2
cm
= 300 + 400
sec sec
cm
= 500
sec

θ=tan−1 ( )
V2
V1
= tan
−1
( )
400
300
= 53 °
Activity:
1. A certain laser printer can print 12 pages per minute. Determine this printer’s output in
pages per day.
2. A room is 10 ft by 12 ft. How many square yards are in the room?
3. Using analytical, polygon method, find the resultant displacement if a truck goes 6 km
east, 3 km south, 2 km west and 1 km north.

Answer key:
12 pg 60 min pg
1. x =720
1 min 1 hr hr
720 pg 24 hrs pg
x =17 , 280
1 hr 1 day day

2. area=length x width
area=10 ft x 12 ft

2
area=120 ft
( 1 yd )2
120 ft 2 x 2
=13.33 yd 2
( 3 ft )

3.

tanθ=
2
4
θ=tan−1 ( 24 km
km )
θ=26.57 °
O
S=
H
2 km
sin ( 26.57 ° )=
H

2 km
H=
sin ( 26.57 ° )
H=4.47 km
Quiz:

I. Identification

1. Quantities which have both magnitude and direction such as force,

displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc.
2. Branch of Applied Science, which deals with the laws and principles of
Mechanics, along with their application to engineering problems.

3. Quantities which have magnitude only such as length, mass, time, distance,
volume, density, temperature, speed etc.

4.Used for joining two vectors when the two vectors to be added join their tails
to form the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram.

5. Deals with the forces and their effects, while acting upon the bodies in
motion.

II. Problem Solving

1. A child is prescribed a dosage of 12 mg of a certain drug per day and is allowed to

refill his prescription twice. If there are 60 tablets in a prescription, and each tablet has 4
mg, how many doses are in the 3 prescriptions (original + 2 refills)?
2. The largest single rough diamond ever found, the Cullinan Diamond, weighed 3106
carats. One carat is equivalent to the mass of 0.20 grams. What is the mass of this
diamond in milligrams? Weight in pounds?
3. Mia walks 100m east and then travels 70m north followed by 140m east. Calculate
her total distance travel.
4. A car moves 150.0m at a 63° “north of east”. It stays at a rest for a while then moves
300m at 34° “south of west”. Find the angle between the two vectors.
5. Find the resultant’s magnitude and direction.
F1 = 7 N, 30° N of E
F2 = 4 N, N
F3 =3 N, N
Answer key:
I. Identification
1. Vector
2. Engineering Mechanics
3. Scalar
4. Parallelogram Method
5. Dynamic

II. Problem Solving

60 tablet 4 mg 1 dosage
1. 3 prescription× × × =60 daily dosages
1 pres 1tablet 12 mg

2.
0.20 g 1000 mg 0.0022005lbs
3106 carats × =621.2 g621.2 g× =621,200 mg621.2 g× =1.37 lbs
1 carat 1g 1g

3. d=100 m+70 m+140 m=310 m

4.
63 °=θ+ 34 °
θ=63 °−34 °θ=29°

5.

∑ Fx=F 1+ F 2+ F 3∑ Fx=7 cos 30+0+(−3)

∑ Fx=3.06 N ∑ Fy=F 1+ F 2+ F 3∑ Fy=7 sin 30+ 4+ 0
∑ Fy=7.5 N
For Resultant:

R= √(∑ Fx ) + ¿ (∑ Fy ) ¿
2 2

R=√ ( 3.06 ) + ( 7.5 )

2 2

R=8.10 N

θ=tan−1 | FyFx |
 θ=tan−1 | |7.5
3.06
θ=67.79 °

References:
Berg, T. (2020). 1.6 Unit Conversion Word Problems. Opentextbc.ca.
https://opentextbc.ca/intermediatealgebraberg/chapter/unit-conversion-word-problems/

Nas, M. R. (2021). Parallelogram Method of Vector Addition. YouTube.

https://youtu.be/5DMKgyqX_9w?si=bqDAf7HpFG60wBWX

NWCG. (2019). 2.1 Unit Conversion and Conversion Factors | NWCG. Nwcg.gov.
https://www.nwcg.gov/course/ffm/conversions/21-unit-conversion-and-conversion-
factors
 CHAPTER 2
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEM

Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

 Calculate and explain the force's moment about an axis or point.

 Define and calculate a couple's moment in a force system.
 Utilize the equilibrium conditions to resolve force system, moment, and couple
problems.
 Apply these ideas to real-world engineering situations.

The body is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant of all forces acting on its
zero. There are two major types of static equilibrium namely translational equilibrium
and rotational equilibrium.
In static, a body is said to be in equilibrium when the force system acting upon it
has a zero resultant.

Conditions of Static Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces

The sum of all forces in the x-direction or horizontal is zero

∑ Fx=0 or ∑ FH =0
The sum of all forces in the y-direction or vertical is zero

∑ Fy=0 or ∑ FV =0
Important Points for Equilibrium Forces

 Two forces are in equilibrium if they are equal and oppositely directed.
 Three coplanar forces in equilibrium are concurrent.
 Three or more concurrent forces in equilibrium form a close polygon when
connected in head-to-tail manner.
 MOMENT

A. Moment and their Application

The Moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate
about a specific point or axis. This is different from the tendency for a body to move, or
translate in the direction of the force. In order for a moment to develop, the force must
act upon the body in such a manner that the body would begin to twist. This occurs
every time a force applied to so that it does not pass through the centroid of the body. A
moment is due to a force not having an equal and opposite force directly along its line of
action.
Imagine two people pushing on a door at the doorknob from opposite sides. If
both of them are pushing with an equal force, then there is a state of equilibrium. If one
of them would suddenly jump back from the door, the push of the other person would no
longer have any opposition and the door would swing away. The person who was still
pushing on the door created a moment.

It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts. The moment of
a force is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the point,
about which the moment is required and the line of action of the force.
Mathematically, moment,
M=PxI
where P = Force acting on the body,
and I = Perpendicular distance between the point, about which the moment is required
and the line of action of the force.

TYPES OF MOMENT
Broadly speaking, the moments are of the following two types:

1. Clockwise moments
2. Anticlockwise moments
CLOCKWISE AND ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENT
Clockwise Moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the
body, about the point in the same direction in which hands of a clock move. On the
other hand, anticlockwise moment is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or
rotate the body, about the point in the opposite direction in which the hands of a clock
move.

COUPLES

Couple is a system of force whose magnitude of the resultant is zero and yet has a
moment sum. Geometrically, couple is composed of two equal forces that are parallel
to each other and acting in opposite direction. The magnitude of the couple is given by

C = Fd

Where F are the two forces and d is the moment arm, or the perpendicular
distance between the forces.
 Couple is independent of the moment center , thus, the effect is unchanged in
the following conditions.

 The couple is rotated through any angle in its plane.

 The couple is shifted to any other position in its plane.
 The couple is shifted to a parallel plane.

In case where system is composed entirely of couples in the same plane or parallel
planes, the resultant is a couple whose magnitude is the algebraic sum of the original
couples.

Sample Problems:
1. Find the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in the figure.

∑ Fx=0
∑ Fx=400lbs−200 lbs cos 60 °+ 300lbs cos 60 °
∑ Fx=226.79 lbs
∑ Fy=0 ∑ Fy=200 lbs sin 30 °
−300 lbs sin 60° −300 lbssin 60 ° ∑ Fy=−149.62 lbs
R= √(∑ Fx ) +( ∑ Fy )
2 2

R=√ ( 226.79 lbs ) + (−419.62lbs )

2 2

R=576.98lbs

θ=tan
| |
−1 ∑ Fy
∑ Fx

θ=tan−1 |149.62
226.79 lbs|
lbs

θ=61.61°
2. Determine the resultant of the parallel force system acting on the bar AB shown in
the figure.

M =Fd

+¿ Ma=( 10 lbs ) (2 ft ) + ( 40´ lbs ) ( 8 ft ) −( 30lbs )( 5 ft ) ¿

´ ft −lbs ¿
+¿ Ma=190

+¿ Mb=( 30 lbs ) ( 3 ft )− (20´ lbs ) ( 8 ft )−( 10 lbs )( 6 ft ) ¿

´
+¿ Mb=−130 ft−lbs∨130 ft−lbs +¿´ ¿ ¿
↓ ↑ R=(−20 lbs ) + (−10 lbs )+ ( 30lbs )+(−40lbs) ↓ ↑ R=−40 lbs∨40 lbs downward

3. To close a gate valve it is necessary to exert two forces of 60 lb at opposite sides of a

handwheel 3 ft in diameter. Through an accident the wheel is broken and the valve must
be closed by a thrusting bar through a slot in the valve stem and exerting a force 4 ft out
from the center. Determine the force required.

C=Fd

C=(60lb)(3 ft )

C=180 lb−ft

T =C

4 F=180lb−ft
4 ft F 180lb −ft
=
4 ft 4 ft

F=45 lb
Activity:
1. What is the magnitude of the resultant moment at A due to the four forces?

2. The three-step pulley shown in figure is subjected to the given couples. Compute the
value of the resultant couple. Also, determine the forces acting at the rim of the largest
and middle pulley that are required to balance the given system.

3. Find the resultant force on the ring due to the three

applied forces.
Answer key:

1.

Note: resultant is not the same as the reaction at wall which will have a sign difference.
´ )−( 6 kN )( 70 cm ) +(3 kN )¿¿
+¿ Ma=( 4 kN ) ( sin 60 ) ( 4 0 cm
´ cm−kN ¿ = 47.60 cm−kN +¿´ ¿
+¿ Ma=−47.60
2.
C=Fd
C=(−45lb ) ( 16 inch )+ (30 lb ) ( 15inch ) + (−60 lb ) ( 8inch )
C=−750 lb−inch
C=750 lb−inch +¿´ ¿

C=Fd
750 lb−inch=F ( 16 inch )
750lb−inch F ( 16 inch )
=
16 inch 16 inch
46.88 lb=F large

750lb−inch F(15 inch)

C=Fd750 lb−inch=F (15 inch) =
15inch 15 inch
50 lb=F middle
3.

→+¿ R =∑ F
x x ¿

R x =(30 N cos 37)+ (−50 N cos 45 ) + (−80 N cos 60 )

R x =−50.40 N

↑+¿ R =∑ F
y y ¿ R y =¿
R y =−15.87 N

R=√ R x 2+ R y 2

R=√ ( 51.40 ) + ( 15.87 )

2 2

R=53.79 N

Quiz:
I. Identification
1. Is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific
point or axis.
 2. A system of force whose magnitude of the resultant is zero and yet has a
moment sum.
3. Is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about
the point in the same direction in which hands of a clock move.
4. In static, a body is said to be in when the force system acting
upon it has a zero resultant.
5. is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about
the point in the opposite direction in which the hands of a clock move.

II. Problem Solving

1. What is the moment at point A due to

the two moment couples? Point A is at
the wall. Counter-clockwise is a positive
moment.

2. Find the moment at point A and C due

to the three loads at B, D and E.

3. The resultant of
the three forces is
horizontal.
Determine the magnitude of the
resultant.

4. Determine the resultant moment

about point A of the system of forces
shown in Fig. Each square is 1 ft on a
side.

5. Determine the resultant moment at

point A for the three forces and one
moment. Assume the structure is
symmetrical at the center. (clockwise is
negative).
Answer Key:

I. Identification
1.Moment
2. Couple
3. Clockwise Moment
4. Equilibrium
5. Anticlockwise Moment

II. Problem Solving

1. Moment at A due to loads. Assuming counter-clockwise moment is positive.

Forces at B and C make a couple

M BC = (2 kN ) (12 cm )=24 cm−kN Forces at C and D make a couple

M CD =(−3 kN )( 34 cm )=−102 cm−kN Total moment

∑ M A =M BC + M CD∑ M A =24+ (−102 ) cm−kN =−78 cm−kN

2. Vertical distance of A to E,

h=tan 35 ¿ ¿Resultant at A and C,

+¿ ´M A =(−2 ) ¿ ¿ ´
+¿ M A =81.00∈−lb¿

+¿ ´M C =(−5)¿ ¿

+¿ ´M C =89.70 ∈−lb ¿3. Since the resultant is horizontal,

therefore:

R y =0 , R=R X c= √ a 2+ b2c= √24 2+ 72

c=25 ↑+¿ R =∑ F
y y ¿

24 12
0=T × ×5200 × −5150
25 13
T =1250 N
 →+¿ R = R=∑ F
x x ¿

24 5
R=−T × +5200 × =800 N →
25 13

4.

⃕ M A =( 4 )( 100 ) ( √15 )+ (−2)( 200 ) ( √213 )+ (−160) +100 √2

⃕ M A =−560.8lb −ft ⃕ M A =560.8 lb−ft , clockwise

5.

Add moment due to all forces and applied moments.

Note: the two horizontal “8 cos45’’ forces components
cancel.

∑ M A =20−8 ( 1 )+ 8 sin 45 ( 3 )−8 sin 45(1)

M A =23.31m−N

References:
Vert, J. (2024). 246 - System with couples and forces on it | Engineering Mechanics
Review at MATHalino. Mathalino.com. https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-
mechanics/246-system-couples-and-forces-it

Nasir, M. H. (2021). Chapter Two: Resultant of Force Systems.

https://uomus.edu.iq/img/lectures21/WameedMUCLecture_2021_92118484.pdf
MODULE 3: TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand equilibrium: Learn what equilibrium means and how it relates to objects
at rest or moving at a constant speed.

2. Know the conditions for equilibrium: Understand that the sum of all forces and
torques must be zero for an object to stay in equilibrium.

3. Draw force diagrams: Practice drawing free-body diagrams to show all the forces
acting on an object.

4. Use Newton's laws: Apply Newton’s First and Third Laws to explain how forces
interact in equilibrium.

5. Solve basic problems: Solve simple problems to find unknown forces or weights
using equilibrium equations.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium is the condition where there is no change in the state of motion of a body.
An object in equilibrium may be at rest. It can also be in motion provided that it moves
with a constant speed in the same direction.

A body is in translational equilibrium if it is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a

straight line. It is rotational equilibrium if it is rotating at constant angular speed above
an axis.

A system of forces acting on a body produces equilibrium if when acting together the
forces have no tendency to produce a change to the body’s translator.
CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM

a. First, the vector sum of the forces must be zero. If the condition is satisfied there is no
tendency towards translation.

The algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in any given direction must be zero.
This is the sum of the upward forces equals the sum of the downward forces and
similarly those forces along the other direction such as left to right.

∑ Fx = 0 ; ∑ Fy = 0

b. Second, the algebraic sum of the torques about any axis normal to the plane by the
forces must be zero, with this condition satisfied, there is no tendency towards rotation.

∑M=0;∑T=0

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

A body at rest will remain at rest or when in motion continues to move with constant
velocity unless there is an unbalanced force acting on it. The first law of Newton is
commonly called the law of inertia.

Inertia is the property of the body that tends to resist a change in its state of motion.
Mass is a measure of inertia, the greater the mass the greater the inertia. The greater
the inertia, the harder it is to change the state of motion of a body.

Mass and Weight

The amount of matter that a body contains is a quantitative measure of inertia which is
mass.

The weight of the body is the gravitational force exerted on a body. A body of mass (m)
has a weight of W=mg at a location where the gravitational acceleration is g.
W= mg

Where: g (gravity) = 9.81 m/sec² = 32.2 ft/sec²

m = mass

W = weight

Force is any influence that can change the velocity of an object

F=ma

Where: F= force

m= mass

a= acceleration

The weight (W) of an object means that the earth is pulling down the object by a
force of W. In turn, the object is pulling the earth up by the force of W.

Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law of Interaction)

Where a body A exert a force on body B, body B exert an equal but oppositely directed
force in body. "To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction force.

TRANSLATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

This occurs when the force component in each direction results to zero.

When forces that act on object have a vector sum of zero, the object is said to be
translational equilibrium. With no net force there is no linear acceleration. The condition
for translational equilibrium is expressed as ∑F= 0

Sum of x force components = 0 ∑ Fx = 0

Sum of y force components=0 ∑ Fy = 0

Five steps to follow in working out problems concerning translational
equilibrium:

1. Draw a sketch of the forces that act on an object. (Free-body diagram or FBD)

2. Choose a convenient set-up coordinate axis and resolve the various forces acting on
the object into the components along the axes. Be sure to use (+) and (-) signs
consistently.

3. Set the sum of this force components along each axis equal to zero. This is the
condition of equilibrium.

4. Solve the resulting equation to determine an unknown quantity or quantities.

5. Substitute numerical values of known quantities to check the final answer.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Consider the values of the Tensions (T1 and T2) in the figure.
Solution:

∑Fx = 0

0 = -T1cos(50) + T2cos(35)

T1 = Eq. 1

∑Fy = 0

0 = T1sin(50) + T2sin(35) - W

W = T1sin(50) + T2sin(35)

Substitute the Eq. 1 to T1

450lbs = sin(50) + T2sin(35)

450lbs = T20.98 + T20.57

Answer: T2= 290.32lb

From equation 1

T1 =

Answer: T1 =369.98lb
2. Calculate the value of T and W required to produce equilibrium in the figure.

Solution:

Step 1: (FBD)

∑Fx = 0

0 = - T cos 60° + 6lbs cos 30°

T=

T = 10.39 lbs

∑Fy = 0
0 = T sin 60° + 6 lbs sin 30° - W

W = T sin 60° + 6 lbs sin 30°

W = (10.39 lbs)(sin 60°) + 6 lbs sin 30°

W = 12 lbs

3. In this relatively simple structure, we have a 500 kg load supported by two

cables, which in turn are attached to walls. Let's say that we would like to
determine the forces (tensions) in each cable.

Solution:

Step 1: (FBD)

= -

0 = T1 cos 53° - T2 cos 30°

T1 = Eq. 1

= + -

0 = T1 sin 53° - T2 sin 30° - (500) (9.8)

0= (sin 53°) + T2 sin 30° - (500) (9.8)

4900 = 1.149 T2 + 0.5 T2

1.649 T2 = 4900

T2 =

T2 = 2971.50 N

From Eq. 1

T1 =

T1 =

T1 = 4276.05 N

ACTIVITY

1. The system in figure is in equilibrium with the

string in the center exactly horizontal. Find (a)
tension T1, (b) tension T2, (c) tension T3, and (d)
angle θ.
2. An object is suspended on a frictionless inclined plane by a rope parallel to the incline
as shown. The angle of the incline is 25⁰ and the tension in the rope is 5000 N.
Determine the weight of the object.

Solution: T1= 5000N

3. Given the diagram at right. Find W and T2.

ANSWER KEY

1. Solution:

Answer:

2. Solution:

∑Fx= 0

FT1x = FT2x
FT1 cos(60) = FT2 cos(30)

Answer: FT2 = 55.42N

3. Solution:

∑Fx= 0

FT1x = FT2x

FT1 cos(60) = FT2 cos(30)

Answer: FT2 = 55.42N

∑ Fy= 0

FTyx + FT2y – w= 0

96Nsin(60) + 55.42Nsin(30) = W

Answer: W = 110.

QUIZ

1. What is the condition for translational equilibrium?

2. What law states that a body at rest remains at rest or in motion unless acted upon by
an unbalanced force?

3. What diagram is used to represent the forces acting on an object in equilibrium?

4. If a body has a mass of 10 kg, calculate its weight on Earth.

5. Which property of a body resists changes in its motion and is directly proportional to
its mass?

6. In this relatively simple structure, we have a weight supported by two cables, which
run over pulleys and are attached to 100 N weights as shown in the diagram. The
two cords each make an angle of 50° with the vertical. Determine the weight of the
body.

7. Calculate the horizontal force F that should be applied to the 200. kg weight shown
in order that the cable AB be inclined at an angle of 30° with the verti
8. Calculate the force in cable AB and the angle θ for the support system.

9. An object of mass m is suspended by two cords connected to a wall and to a 10. kg

block resting on a table. The co-
efficient of friction of 0.60 exists
between the 10. kg object and the
table. What maximum mass, m,
that can be hung from the cords
before the 10. kg block begins to
move?

10. The system of knotted cords shown support

the indicated weights. Compute the tensile
force in each cord.
ANSWER KEY

1. The vector sum of all forces acting on the object must be zero, i.e., ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy
=0

2. Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia).

3. Free-body diagram (FBD).

4. W=mg
W = 10 kg × 9.81 m/ s2
W = 98.1 N

5. Inertia.

6. FBD

= -

0 = 100 cos 40° - 100 cos 40°

= + -

0 = 100 sin 40° - 100 sin 40° -

 = 128.56 N

7. FBD

= –F

=F

= – Fg

= Fg

= 1960 N

tan 30° =

1960 tan 30° = = 1131.6065 N

Since = F we know

F = 1131.61 N
8. FBD

= –F

0= – 200 N
= 200 N

= – Fg

0= – (400N) (9.8)

= 3920 N

= +

=
= 3925.0987 N

cos θ =
θ = 87.1°

9. FBD
 = -
=
= (0.60) (10.0)(9.8)
= 58.8 N

= -

= 9.8m

tan 35° =

= = 83.975 N

M= = = 8.57 kg

10. FBD

∑Fx = 0

0 = - cos 60° + D cos 15°

C= Eq. 1
∑Fy = 0
0 = C sin 60° + D sin 15° - W
W = C sin 60° + D sin 15°

W= (sin 60°) + D sin 15°

 400N = D 1.67 + D 0.26

=
D = 207.25N

C= from eq. 1

C=
C = 400.38N
For A & B
∑Fx = 0
0 = - A + B cos 45° + C cos 60°
A = B cos 45° + C cos 60°
A = B cos 45° + (400.38N) (cos 60°)
A = B cos 45° + 200.19 Eq. 2
∑Fy = 0
0 = B sin 45° - C sin 60° - 300N
B sin 45° = C sin 60° + 300N
B sin 45° = 400.38N sin 60° + 300

=
B = 914.63N
A = (914.63N) (cos 45°) + 200.19 from eq. 2
A = 846.93N

Smacken. (n.d.). Equilibrium: Lesson 1. Retrieved from

https://smacken.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/8/0/25803832/equilibrium_lesson_1.pdf
CHAPTER IV: UNIT VECTOR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Learn what unit vectors are and how they describe directions (i,j,k).
2. Write vectors as parts along the x, y, and z-axis using unit vectors.
3. Combine or separate vectors by adding or subtracting their parts.
4. Find the angle between two vectors or check if they are perpendicular using the
dot product.
5. Calculate the cross product to find a new vector or the area of a parallelogram
between two vectors.

Unit of Vector

- Its only purpose is to describe a direction in space. The length vector is called
unit vector.

• A unit vector i is a unit vector that points +x-axis,

• A unit vector j is a unit vector that points +y-axis.

• A unit vector k is a unit vector that points +z-axis,

Relationship Between Component Vectors and Component.

Ax=AxíAy=AyjAz=Azk

A=Axí+Ayj-yj-For two-dimensional plane

A=Axí+Ayj+Ayj+Azk-For three dimensional plane

Vector sum using unit vector,when two vector A & Bare given

C=A+B

C=Cxi+Cyj+Czk

C=(Ax+Bx)i+(Ay+Byy)j+(Az+Bz)k

Magnitude of a Vector sum Formula

|A|=(Aí)^2+(Aj)^2+(Ak)^2

Example:

Two vectors A = -i+2j-5k and B = 2i+3j-2k

a. Find the magnitude of A and B

b. Find the vector sum of C

c. Find the magnitude of C

d. Find the difference of A and B

Find the magnitude of the difference of A and B

Answer:

a. Find the magnitude of A and B

V = v₁i + v2j + v3k

Finding the magnitude of A

||A|| = √(−1)² +2² + (-5)²

||A|| = √1+4+25

Answer: ||A|| = √30

 b. Finding the magnitude of B

||B|| = √2² +32 + (-2)²

||B|| = √ 4+9+4

Answer: ||B|| = √17

c. Find the vector sum of C

The vector sum of two vectors is calculated by Adding the corresponding components of
the…

Vectors:

C = A + B = (-1+2)i + (2+3)j + (−5-2)K

Answer: C=i+5j-7k

c. Find the magnitude of C

||C||| = √1² +5² + (-7)²

||C|| = √1+25+49

Answer: ||C|| = √75

d. Find the difference of A and B

The difference of two vectors is calculated by Subtracting the corresponding
components of the…

Vectors:

A – B = (−1 – 2)i + (2 – 3)j + (−5+ 2)k

Answer: A–B= –3i – j – 3k

Find the magnitude of the difference of A and B

||A – B|| = √(−3)² + (−1)² + (−3) ²

||A – B|| = √ 9+1+9

Answer: ||A – B|| = √19

Products of Vectors

1. Scalar Product (Dot Product) - yields a result that is scalar quantity.

2. Vector Product (Cross Product) - yields a result that is vector quantity.

The scalar product is denoted by A and B as:

A·B=dot product of vectors A and B

A·BA·B=AxBx+AyBy+AzBz

=1| |B| cosθ=|A| |A| and |B|=magnitude of vectors A and B

O= angle between two vectors

The scalar product of two perpendicular vectorsis always zero.

The scalar product obey the commutative lawof multiplication, A·B=B·A

Examples:

Find the angle between two vectors A=2i+3j+4k and B=i-2j+3k

Solution:

Step-by-step solution:

1. Calculate the dot product of A and B

A · B = (2)(1) + (3)(−2) + (4)(3) = 2 — 6 + 12 = 8

2. Calculate the magnitudes of A and B:

||A|| = √2²+3² +4² = √29

||B|| = √1² + (-2)²+3² = √14

 3. Substitute the values into the formula for the Angle:

Ꮎ = cos -¹(8/√29√14)

4. Calculate the angle:

Ꮎ ≈ 60.26°

Answer: 60.26°

Vector Product (Cross Product)

The cross product is denoted by A and BB as:

AxB = |A||B|sinθ

AxB=(AyBz-AzBy)i+(AzBx-AxBz)-AxBz)j+(AxBy-AyBx)k

Example.

Calculate the area of the parallelogram spanned by the vectors a=(3,−3,1) And
b=(4,9,2)

Solution: The area is ||a•b||

Using the above expression for the cross product, we find that the area is √15²+2²+392²
Answer = 5√70

Activity.

1. Compute a ⇥ b, where
A = 4i – k

B = −2i + j + 3k.
 2. Show that i ⇥ j = k.
3. Find the area of a triangle with adjacent sides Given by

A = i + 2j – k
B = j + k.

ANSWER KEY

1. Solution:

= 0i + 2j + 4k – 0k – (−i) – 12j

Answer = i – 10j + 4k.

2. Solution:
= 0i + 0j + 1k – 0i – 0j – 0k
Answer = k.
3. Solution:

= 2i + 0j + k – (−i) – j – 0k

= 3i – j + k. |a ⇥ b| = 2A) A

= ½ |a ⇥ b|

= ½ √3² + (−1)² + 1²

Answer = ½ √11

Quiz.

1. What is the purpose of a unit vector?

2. What is the magnitude of a unit vector?
3. What are the unit vectors along the xxx-axis, yyy-axis, and zzz-axis called.
4. How can vector A be expressed using unit vectors in three dimensions.
5. What is the formula for the magnitude of vector A in three dimensions?
PROBLEM SOLVING

6. Find the unit vector which is in the direction of 3i + 4j – 5k.

7. Find the unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors A = 2i – 3j + 4k
and B = -i + 5j – 2k.
8. Find the vector of magnitude 8 units and in the direction of the vector i 7j
+ 2k.
9. A vector B has a magnitude of 10 and is directed at an angle of 30° from
the x-axis in the xy-plane. Express B in terms of i and j.
10. Calculate the angle between two vectors. Given A = 2i + j and B = 3i – 4j,
fine the angle θ between them.

ANSWER KEY

1. A unit vector is used to describe a direction in space without considering

magnitude.

2, - Along the x-axis: i

- Along the y-axis: j

- Along the zzz-axis: k

3. always 1.

4. A = Axi + Ayj + Azk, where Ax, Ay, and Az , are the vector components.

5. ∣A∣ = √ ( Ax)²+(Ax )²+( Ax)²

6. Solution:

Given vector A = 3i + 4j – 5k Its magnitude is,

|A| = (3² + 4² + (-5)²

= √(9 + 16 + 25)

= √50
= 5√2

The unit vector in the direction of the given vector is,

Á= A/|A|

= (3i + 4j – 5k) / (5√2)

Answer: (3/5√2) i + (4/5√2) j – (5/5√2) k.

7. Solution:

The resultant vector of the given two vectors is:

A + B = (2i – 3j + 4k) + (-i + 5j – 2k) = i + 2j + 2k.

Its magnitude is,

|A + B| = √(12 + 22 + 22)

= √(9)

=3

To find the unit vector parallel to the resultant of the given vectors, we divide the above
resultant vector by its magnitude. Thus, the required unit vector is, (A + B) / |A + B| = (i +
2j + 2k) / 3 = 1/3 i + 2/3 j + 2/3 k

Answer: 1/3 i + 2/3 j + 2/3 k.

8. Solution

A = i – 7j + 2k.

|A| = √(12 + (-7)2 + (2)2)

= √(1 + 49 + 4)

= √54

= 3√6

The unit vector can be calculated using the formula below.

Á = A/|A|

= (i – 7j + 2k) / (3√6)

The vector of magnitude 8 units = 8 × (i – 7j + 2k) / (3√6)

Answer: = (4√6/9) · (i – 7j + 2k).

9. Solution

Bx = |B| cos(30° ), By = |B| sin(30° )

Bx = 10·cos(30° ) = 10·
√3 =5 √3
2

1
By = 10·sin(30° ) = 10· =5
2

Answer: B = (5√ 3)I + 5j

10. Solution:

A·B = |A||B|cos θ

A·B = (2)(3) + (1)(−4) = 6−4 = 2

∣A∣ = √ 22+ 12= √ 5, ∣B∣ = √ 32 +(−4)2 = √ 9+16 = 5

2= √ 5·5·cos θ

2 2 √5
cos θ = =
5 √5 25

2 √5
Answer: θ = coscos−1( )
25
Unit Vector - formula, definition, caculate, notation. (n.d.). Cuemath.
https://www.cuemath.com/calculus/unit-vector/

Stroud, K. A., & Booth, D. J. (2020). Engineering mathematics. Red Globe Press.

CHAPTER 5

Moment of Inertia

Learning Objectives

1. Learn how to calculate the moment of inertia through integration and using transfer
formula.
2. Learn how to calculate the radius of gyration and polar moment of inertia.
3. Be able to calculate the moment of inertia with respect to any axis.

The mathematical definition of moment of inertia,

I =∫ ρ dA , indicates that an area is divided into small
2

parts such as dA, and each area is multiplied by the

square of its moment arm ρ about the reference axis.

Thus, as shown in Fig. 8-1, if the coordinates of the

center of the differential area dA are (x, y), the moment
of inertia about the X axis is the summation of the
product of each area dA by the square of its moment
arm y. This gives

I x =∫ y dA
2

The moment of inertia about the Y axis

I y =∫ x dA
2

The moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis is denoted by I and can be
found using the same formulas.
 The moment of inertia (of area) is sometimes called the second moment of area
because each differential area multiplied by its moment arm gives the moment of area; when
multiplied a second time by its moment arm it gives the moment of inertia.

The sign of I is obviously independent of the sign of the moment arm ρ; it depends
entirely on the sign of the area. We shall define a positive area as one which adds to the area of
a figure, and a negative area as one which reduces the area of the figure. For a net area, the
moment of inertia must always be positive.

Units and Signs. Examination of the integral ∫ ρ dA shows it to be a fourth-dimensional

2

term because it is composed of a distance squared multiplied by an area.

Polar Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia for an area
relative to a line or axis perpendicular to
the plane of the area is called the polar
moment of inertia and is denoted by the
symbol J.

In Fig. 8-2 the moment of inertia of an

area in the XY plane with respect to the Z
axis is

J z=∫ r dA=∫ ( x + y ) dA J z=∫ x dA+∫ y dA J z=I x + I y

2 2 2 2 2 2

Therefore, the polar moment of inertia for an area with respect to an axis perpendicular to its
plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axes
in its plane that intersects on the polar axis.

Radius of Gyration

The radius of gyration is frequently considered to be the uniform distance from the
reference axis at which the entire area may be assumed to be distributed. It is usually denoted
by the symbol k (sometimes by r) and is defined by the relation
 k=
√ I
A
∨I = A k 2

Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

It is often necessary to transfer the moment of inertia from one axis to another parallel
axis. The transfer formula affords a method of doing this without further integration. The moment
of inertia for the same area with respect to a parallel axis (X) located a distance d from the
centroidal axis is given by the equation

2
I x =I x + A d

Sample Problems

1. Determine the moment of inertia for a rectangle of base b and depth h with respect to a
centroidal axis parallel to the base

I x =∫ y dA let dA=bdy
2

h h

[ ]
2 3
y 2
I x= ∫ y 2 bdy =b
−h
3 −h
2 2

[( ) ( ) ]
h 3 −h 3

I x =b
2
3
−
2
3 [=b ] h3
+
h3
3 ⋅ 8 3 ⋅8

[ ] [ ] [ ]
3 3 3 3 3
h h 2h h bh
I x =b + =b =b I x=
24 24 24 12 12
ans.

2. Compute the moment of inertia for the composite area shown in Fig. 8-12 with respect to
the indicated X axis.
Solution:
3
I x =I R + I C + I T I R =I R + A d R2= b h + ( bh ⋅d R2 )
12
I R =6∈⋅¿ ¿ ¿ I R =364.5 ¿ +337.5 ¿ 4
4

4
I R =702¿
2
2 4 πr 2
 ( )
3
2 bh 1 2
I T =I T + A d T = + bh ⋅d T I T =4∈⋅¿ ¿ ¿ I T =81¿ 4 +288 ¿4 Substituting these values into:
36 2
I x =I R + I C + I T
4
I T =369 ¿
4
We get I x =702 ¿ +160.08 ¿4 + 369¿ 4
4
I x =1231.08 ¿

3. Determine the moment of inertia with respect to the Y axis, of the area cut from the first
quadrant by the curve y = 4 — 2? where x and y are in inches.

Solution

I x =∫ y dA dA=(a-x)dy; x=k y 2
2

= 2 ∴ x= 2 ⋅ y
x a a 2
k= 2
y b b

( )
b 2 b 4
ay ay
I x =∫ y a− 2 dy=∫ (a y − 2 )dy
2 2

0 b 0 b

[ ]
3 5
ay ay b
I x= − 2

[ ][ ]
a b 3 a b5 a 03 a 05 3 5b 0
I x= − 2 − −
3 5b 3 5 b2

[ ]
3
ab ab
3
5ab 3ab 2ab
3 3 3 3 2ab
I x= − = − = I x=
3 5 15 15 15 15
Activity

1. Determine the moment of inertia with respect to the x-axis and y-axis of the quarter
circular area.

2. Determine the moment of inertia about the x-

axis.

3.Determine the moment of inertia of the composite figure about

the x-axis.
Answer Key

4
πr I x =I y
1. I x = =π ⋅¿ ¿
16
2.
2
−x
+5 x
8 4
I x =∫ y dA
2
I x =∫ ∫ 2
y dydx
0 x

[ ]( ) [( ]
−x 2
)
8 8 3
y3
+5x 1 −x
2
¿∫ 4 dx¿ ∫ 3
+ 5 x −x dx
0 3 0 3 4
x

[ ]
8 6 4 2 2
1 −x 15 x ⋅ x 75 x ⋅ x
¿∫
3 3
+ − +125 x −x dx
0 3 64 16 4

∫ [ ]
8 6 4 2 2
1 −x 15 x ⋅ x 75 x ⋅ x 3
¿ + − +124 x dx
0 3 64 16 4

[ ] [ ]
7 6 5 4 7 6 5 4
−x 15 x 75 x 124 x 8 −8 15⋅ 8 75 ⋅8 124 ⋅8 4
¿ + − + ¿ + − + I x =13458.29 m
64 ⋅7 ⋅3 16 ⋅6 ⋅3 4 ⋅5 ⋅3 4 ⋅3 0 1344 96 60 12
3.

2 2 2
I x =I x + A d I x =I x1 + A y 1 + I x1 + A y 1
3 3
b1 h1 2 b2 h2 2
I x= + b1 h1 y 1 + +b 2 h2 y 2
12 12

( ) ( )
3 3
5 cm⋅ ( 2cm ) 2 cm 2 2 cm ⋅ ( 4 cm ) 4 cm 2
I x= +5 cm⋅2 cm ⋅ + +2 cm⋅ 4 cm ⋅ +2
12 2 12 2
4 4 4 4
I x =3.33 cm + 10 cm +10.67 cm +128 cm
4
I x =152 cm

Quiz

Identification

1. When the moment arm is multiplied a second time with its moment arm.
2. This is the distance between the centroid and the reference axis to be used for getting
the moment.
3. Give the formula for the moment of inertia of a rectangle with respect to its centroidal
axis.
4. This is the uniform distance from the reference axis at which the entire area may be
assumed to be distributed.
5. The moment of inertia for an area relative to a line or axis perpendicular to the plane of
the area.

Problem Solving.

1. Determine the moment of inertia about line a-a.

2. Determine the moment of inertia about the y-axis.

3. Determine the moment of inertia about the x-axis.

4. Determine the moment of inertia for the shaded area about the x-axis.
 5. Determine the moment of inertia about the x-axis.

Answer Key

1. Moment of inertia
2. Moment arm
3
bh
3. I x =
12
4. Radius of gyration
5. Polar moment of inertia

Problem Solving

1.
Split into 2 rectangles
3 3
bh 2 bh 2
I 1= + A 1 d 1 I 2= + A2d2
12 12
3 3
 12 12

2.

3 3
bh 2 bh 2
I 1= + A 1 d 1 I 2= + A2d2
12 12
3
3 cm ( 1 cm ) 4
I 1= + ( 3 cm ⋅1 cm )( 0.5 cm )2 I 1=1 cm
12
3
0.5 cm ( 2 cm ) 4
I 2= + ( 2cm ⋅0.5 cm ) ( 2 cm )2 I 2=4.33 cm
12
4 4 4
I y =1 cm + 4.33 cm I y =5.33 cm
3. 3 3
bh bh
+ A 2 d 2 I 3=I 2
2 2
I 1= + A 1 d 1 I 2=
12 36

( )
3
4 m (6 m) 6m 2
I 1= + ( 4 m⋅6 m) =288 m4
12 2

( )( )
3
2 m (6 m) 1 2 ⋅6 m 2
I 1= + ⋅2 m⋅6 m =108 m4
36 2 3
I 3=I 2=108 m I x =¿ 288 m +108 m4 +108 m4
4 4

4
I x =504 m

2
y
4. x= dA= (100-x)dy
400

( ) ( )
200 200 2 200 4
y y
I x =∫ y dA= ∫ y ( 100−x ) dy I x =¿ ∫ ∫
2 2 2 2
y 100− dy I x =¿ 100 y − dy
0 0 400 0 400

[ ] [ ]
3 5 3 5
100 y y 200 100 ( 200 ) ( 200 ) 6 4
I x= − I x= − I x =106.67 × 10 mm
3 2000 0 3 2000

1
n
ay
I x =∫ y dA
2
5. x= 1
n
b

( ) ( ) [ ]
1 2 n+1 3 n+1
b b n b n 3 n
ay ay ay a ny b
I x =∫ y 2 ( a−x ) dy =∫ y 2 a− 1
dyI x =∫ a y 2− 1
dy= − 1
0 0 n 0 n
3 0
b b b n ⋅3 n+1

[ ] [ ]
3 3 3
ab na b 3 1 n 3 1 ab
I x= − =ab − = ab I x=
3 3 n+1 3 3 n+1 3 ( 3 n+1 ) 3 ( 3 n+1 )

References

SINGER, F. L. (1954). Engineering mechanics. second edition. Harper & Bros.

Gramoll, K. (n.d.). Statics. Statics ebook: Area moment of inertia.

https://www.ecoursesbook.com/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?topic=st&chap_sec=07.4&page=theory

Engineers Academy. (n.d.-a). How to determine Moment of Inertia (Chapter 10) Hibbeler Statics
| Engineers Academy. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7yotrC9KMI&t=656s
Force of Friction - AP physics 1. Private Tutoring. (n.d.).
https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_physics_1-help/force-of-friction
 CHAPTER 6

Centroids

Learning Objectives

1. Learn the definition of centroid and centre of gravity.

2. Learn how to derive the formula in identifying the location of the centroid.
3. Be able to identify the location of the centroid analytically.
4. Use integration in finding the centroid of a figure or a line.

Introduction
A body of weight W is supported by a string attached at A, as
shown in Fig. 7-1. The only external forces acting on the body
are its weight and the reaction exerted by the string.
Equilibrium of the body can exist only if these two forces are
equal, opposite, and collinear. The line of action of the weight
W can be determined, therefore, by the line of action of the
support. Let the body be supported in a new position by the
string now attached to B. The body will shift its position so that
the line of action of the weight is again collinear with the string.
Thus, two positions of the line of action of the weight are
determined experimentally. The intersection of these positions
of the line of action determines a point which is defined as the
center of gravity of the body; this is the point through which the
action line of the weight always passes.

CENTROID

Plane figures have areas but no mass since they are only 2 dimensional. The centre of
area of such figures is known as the centroid. The method of finding out the centroid of a figure is
similar to that of finding the centre of gravity of a body.
 The analytical location of the center of gravity is simply a variation of the principle of moments;
* moment of the resultant is equal to the moment sum of its parts. This means that by taking
that is, the
the sum of a figure’s elemental moment, we can find the point in which the resultant force acts. This
point is the centre of gravity or centroid of the figure.

As an example, consider the flat plane of irregular section shown figure. 7-2. The network
shown divides the plate into small elements having weights w 1, w 2, etc., which act at the centre of
each element. These gravity forces form a parallel force system, the resultant of which is the total
weight W of the plate.

Let the coordinates of each elemental weight be ( x 1 , y 1), ( x 2 , y 2), etc., and the coordinates of
the resultant weight be ( x , y ), as shown in Fig. 7-2.

Taking the moment of the weight about the Y-

axis

W x=w1 x 1 +w 2 x 2 +…=∑ wx

Taking the moment of the weight about the X-

axis

W y=w1 y 1+ w2 y 2+ …=∑ wy

Assuming the material of the plate to be homogenous, then the weight W may be expressed as
the product of its density γ multiplied by tA, where t is the thickness of the plate and A is its area.
Similarly, the weight w of an element is given by γta, where a is the cross-sectional area of the
element.

γtA x =γt a1 x1 + γt a 2 x 2 +…=γt ∑ ax

Cancelling the constant terms γ and t, we get

A x=Σ ax A y=Σ aY

The expression A x as well as A y are called the moment of area.

We can get the equation for the location of the centroid of a figure by rewriting the formula in the
following form:

Σ ax Σ aY
x= y=
A A

When referring to lines, the centroid may be determined by similar means.

A line may be assumed to be the axis of a

homogeneous slender wire. Thus Fig. 7-3
represents the center line of a
homogeneous wire of length L and
constant cross-sectional area lying in the
XY plane. The weight W is given the
equation W = γaL and the weight w of an
elemental length l by w = γal.

Substituting:
γtL x=γt l 1 x 1 +γt l 2 x 2 +…=γt ∑ lx

γtL y=γt l 1 y 1+ γt l 2 y 2+ …=γt ∑ ly

Therefore
L x=Σlx L y=Σly

Centroids Determined by Integration

 Integration can also be used in finding the centroid of a line and an area. By changing
the symbols, we get

A x=∫ xdA A y=∫ ydA L x=∫ xdLL y=∫ ydL

Example Problems

1. Determine the centroid of the line which is an arc of a circle

Let the X axis as the axis of symmetry. Then

y=0. If the radius of the arc is denoted by r and
the subtended angle by 2α, the element of arc
dL and its distance from the Y axis are dL=rdθ
adj
and x=rcos θ (using cos where x - adj and r
hyp
– hyp).

Using
L x=∫ xdL

rθ ∴ L=rθ
θ
Length of a sector (θ in radians): × 2 πr yields
2π →

θ = 2α 2 αr ⋅ x=r 2 [ sin θ ]−α

α

2 αr ⋅ x=r [ sinαα −sin−α ]

2
α α
2 αr ⋅ x=∫ r cos θ ⋅rdθ2 αr ⋅ x=∫ r cos θ2dθ2 [ sin∫α cos
2 2
αr ⋅αr ⋅ x=r
x=r
2
+ sinθαdθ]
−α −α 2 −α
2 αr ⋅ x=r ⋅2 sin α
2
2 2 r sin α Ans.
2 αr ⋅ x=2 r sin α x=
2 αr
r sin α
x=
α
2. Find the centroid of the triangle with respect to its base.

1
dA=xdy A= bh
2
A y=∫ ydA
h
1
bh y=∫ yxdy
2 0

b x
For similar triangles, use ratio: =
h h− y
b
x= ( h− y )
h

[ ] [ ] ( )
h h 2 3 2 3 3
1 b b b y h y h 1 b 3h h 2h b h
bh y= ∫ y ( h− y ) dy=¿ ∫ y h− y dy=¿
2
− ¿ ¿ bh y= − =
2 h 0 h0 h 2 3 0 2 h 6 6 h 6

( )( 2bh ) y= 13 h
3
b h
y=
h 6
3. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown with respect to the given axes.

A y=Σ Ay
3
1 307.23 ¿
¿41.14 ¿2 y=307.23 ¿3 y= =2.34 ∈¿
2 41.14 ¿
2

Activity
1. Locate the centroid of the shaded area shown
 A1=12in(12in) = 144 ¿2
1
A2 = (12in)(6in) = 36 ¿2
1 2
x 1= (12in) = 6 in
2 1
x 2= (12in) = 6 in
1 2
y 1= (12) = 6 in
2 1
y 2= (6in) = 6 in
2

A = A 1− A 2− A3

A = 144 - 36 ¿2 - 36 ¿2 = 72¿2
1
A3= (12in)(6in) = 36 ¿2 3
2 360 ¿
A x=Σ ax 72 ¿2 x=144 ¿2 ¿ x= 2
=5∈¿
72 ¿
2
x 3= (12in) = 8 in
3
2
y 3= 6in+ (6in) = 6 in
3

A y=Σ ay 72 y =144¿2 (6in)−36¿2 (2in)−36¿2 (10in)

3
432¿
y=
72∈¿=6 ∈¿ ¿

2. Find x of the shaded region.

3. Find y of the shaded region.

 1

2.
∫ xda 1
; y=x 2 ; da= ydx
x= 0
A=∫ dA
A 0

[ ]
1 1 1
(1 m) x4 1 4
∫ xda ∫ x ⋅ x 2 dx ∫ x 3 dx
4 .25 m4 4 0
x= 01 =01 = 01 = 3 = = =0.76 m
[ ]
3 3
x 1 (1 m) .33 m
∫ dA ∫ x 2 dx ∫ x 2 dx 3 0 3
0 0 0
1

3.
∫ 2y da 1
; y=x 2 ; da= ydx
y= 0
A=∫ dA
A 0

[ ]
1 1 2 1 4
x5 1 5
∫ 2y da ∫ x2 ⋅ x 2 dx ∫ x2 dx 10 0
(1 m)
0 0 0 10
y= = = = =
[ ]
1 1 1
x3 1 ¿¿¿
∫ dA ∫ x dx 2
∫ x dx
2
3 0
0 0 0

Quiz

1. The centre of 2d figures is known as?

2. Give the equation for the distance of the centroid of a triangle from its base.
3. What is the equation of a line’s centroid relative to the x-axis?
4. What is the equation of a line’s centroid relative to the y-axis?
5. The point through which the action line of the weight of a body always passes.
6. The dimensions of the T-section of a cast-iron beam are shown in Fig. P-714. How far is
the centroid of the area above the base?
7-8. Locate the centroid if figure ( x , y )

9.-10. A slender homogeneous wire of uniform cross section is bent into the form shown in Fig.
7-12. Determine the position of the centroid of the wire with respect to the x and y axis.
Answer Key

1. Center of gravity or centroid

1
2. h
3
3. L y=Σly
4. L x=Σlx
5. Center of gravity or centroid
3
43¿
6. A y=Σ Adx¿14 ¿ 2 y=43 ¿3 y= 2
=3.07∈¿
14 ¿

7. x=
∑ ax
∑a
 x=¿ ¿x=−1∈¿

8. x=
∑ ax
∑a
y=¿ ¿ y=4.625∈¿

9. L x=Σlx ( 4 π + 8 ) x=( 4 inπ ) ¿20.56∈ x=−32 ¿2 +32 ¿2 x=0

10. L y=Σly
2
( 4 π + 8 ) y=( 4 inπ ) ¿20.56∈ y=¿-32¿2 y= −32 ¿ y=−1.56∈¿
20.56∈¿ ¿

References

Less Boring Lectures. (n.d.-a). CENTROID of Composite Area in 2 Minutes!. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pBKFiCie2JE

Less Boring Lectures. (n.d.-b). CENTROIDS and Center of Mass in 10 Minutes!. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6zNIheXRzg&t=90s

Centroid of Area. centroid of area | MATHalino reviewer about centroid of area. (n.d.).
https://mathalino.com/tag/reviewer/centroid-area

SINGER, F. L. (1954). Engineering mechanics. second edition. Harper & Bros.

CHAPTER 7: UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Topics:

1. Speed

2. Velocity

3. Average Velocity

4. Acceleration

5. Free Falling Bodies

6. Projectile

Speed

It is a scalar quantity which specifies magnitude or numerical value of the rate of motion
without reference to the directional of motion.

Average Speed=

Velocity

A velocity is a vector quantity whose magnitude is identical with speed but has
direction. It is defined as the time rate of displacement or the time rate of change of
position.

Average Velocity =
Where: s bar = distance ; t= time

Average Velocity – The average velocity of an object during a time interval can
be calculated with the equation

V = average velocity
V0 = initial velocity
Vf = final velocity

Acceleration – Measures the time rate-of- Change of velocity.

Free Falling Bodies

A falling boy thrown vertically upward is a special case of uniformly accelerated
motion, where the acceleration is of constant magnitude represented by the letter
‘g’. The symbol ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.
Projectile
A projectile is anybody that is given an initial velocity and follows a path
determined by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air resistance, the
path followed by a projectile is called trajectory. The acceleration due to gravity is
always straight down. It has no horizontal component. The projectile motion is a
combination of horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A car starting from rest is accelerated at 6m/sec2. In how many seconds will its
velocity be equal to 30m/sec? How far will have it travel during this time?
2. A gun was fired at an angle of 60 degrees above the horizontal. The bullet
having an initial velocity of 500m/s. In how many seconds will it stay in air and
what is the maximum horizontal distance?
3. A runner makes one lap around a 200-m track in a time of 25s. What were the
runner’s
 (a) Average Speed
(b) Average velocity

ANSWER KEY
1. Solution:
2. a.) Find the time:
Given:
Initial velocity (u) = 0 m/s (starts from rest)
Final velocity (v) = 30 m/s
Acceleration (a) = 6 m/s²

Formula: v = u + at

Substitute and solve: 30 = 0 + 6t

t = 30 / 6 = 5 seconds

b.) Find the distance:

Formula: s = ut + (1/2)at²
Substitute and solve: s = (0)(5) + (1/2)(6)(5)²
s = 0 + 150 = 75 meters
Answer:
The car will reach a velocity of 30 m/s in 5 seconds.
It will travel 75 meters during this time.

2. Solution
H=

H=

Answer H= 9556.57m

3. Solution:
(a) Average Speed
Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time
Average Speed = 200 m / 25 s = 8 m/s

(b) Average Velocity

Average Velocity = Displacement / Total Time
Since the runner completes one lap and returns to the starting point, the
displacement is 0.
Average Velocity = 0 m / 25 s = 0 m/s

Answer:
(a) The runner's average speed is 8 m/s.
(b) The runner's average velocity is 0 m/s.
ACTIVITY FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

1. Maximum Height A ball is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of 15 m/s.

What is the maximum height the ball reaches?

2. Range a projectile is launched with an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle of 45

degrees above the horizontal. What is the horizontal range of the projectile?

3. From rest, a car accelerated at 8 m/s2 for 10 seconds.

(a) What is the position of the car at the end of the 10 seconds?

(b) What is the velocity of the car at the end of the 10 seconds?

ANSWER KEY

1. Solution:

At the maximum height, the vertical velocity (v) is 0 m/s.

Formula: v² = u² + 2as

Substitute: 0² = 15² + 2(-9.8)s

Solve for s: s = 15² / (2 * 9.8) ≈ 11.48 meters

Answer:

The ball reaches a maximum height of approximately 11.48 meters.

2. Solution:
Formula: Range (R) = (v₀x)² * sin(2θ) / g

v₀x = v₀ * cos(θ) = 25 m/s * cos(45°) ≈ 17.68 m/s

R = (17.68 m/s)² * sin(90°) / 9.8 m/s² ≈ 31.86 meters

Answer:

The horizontal range of the projectile is approximately 31.86 meters.

3. Solution

(a) (b)

S= Vf=

S= Vf=

Answer: S= 400m Answer: Vf = 80m/s

Quiz for UAM

1. What is the term for the vector quantity that describes the time rate of displacement
and includes both magnitude and direction?

2. What is the physical quantity measured by the time rate of change of velocity?
3. Which type of motion combines horizontal motion at constant velocity with vertical
motion under constant acceleration due to gravity?

4. In free fall, what is the only force acting on an object (neglecting air resistance)?
5. What term refers to the overall change in position divided by the total time taken,
considering direction?

PROBLEM SOLVING

1. A rocket starts from rest and accelerates uniformly upward at 15 m/s for 12seconds.
After this, its engines shut off, and it continues upward under gravity until it reaches its
maximum height.
Find:
a. The maximum height the rocket reaches.
b. The total time the rocket is in the air.

2. A train is traveling at 20 m/s. A passenger standing at the back of the train throws a
ball forward with a velocity of 10 m/s relative to the train. What is the ball's velocity
relative to the ground?

3. A ball is thrown upward with a velocity of 25 m/s25 \, \text{m/s}25m/s.

a. How high does the ball go?
b. How long does it take to return to the thrower's hand?

4. A car travels 50 km at a constant speed of 60 km/h. It then accelerates uniformly to a

speed of 80 km/h and travels another 100 km at this speed. What is the average speed
of the car for the entire journey?

5. A ball is dropped from a height of 50 meters. Due to air resistance, its acceleration is
only 8 m/s². How long does it take to hit the ground?
QUIZ ANSWER KEY

1. Velocity

2. Acceleration

3. Projectile Motion

4. Gravity

5. Average Velocity

1. Solution.
a).
1
s1 = ut +
2

𝑠1 = 0+ (15)(122) = ( (15)(144) = 1080 m/s

1 1
2 2

v = u + at = 0 + (15)(12) = 180m/s

At maximum height, the velocity becomes zero. Use:

2 2
v = u + 2as

0 = 1802 – 2(9.8)s2

2
180 32400
s2 = − =165.06 m
2 ( 9.8 ) 19.6

stotal = s1 + s2 = 1080 + 1653.06 = 2733.06m

b).

t1 = 12s

v = u + at ⇒ 0 = 180 − (9.8)t2
 180
t2 = ≈ 18.37s
9.8

1 1 2
s= gt2 ⇒ 2733.06 = (9.8)t
2 2 3

2 2733.06 x 2 5466.12
t = = ≈ 557.76
3 9.8 9.8

t3 ≈ 23.61s

ttotal = t1 + t2 + t3 = 12 + 18.37 + 23.61 ≈ 53.98s

Answer:
a. Maximum height = 2733.06 m.
b. Total time = 53.98 s.

2. Solution:

20 m/s + 10 m/s = 30 m/s

Answer: The ball's velocity relative to the ground is 30 m/s.

3. Solution:

Part a: Maximum height

At maximum height, v = 0. Use:

2 2
v =u +2 as

Where:

m
 u=25 2
=25
s
 m
 a=−9.8 2
=−9.8
s

 0 = 252+ 2(−9.8)s
2
25 625
 S= = ≈ 31.89m
2(9.8) 19.6

Part b: Total time

1. Time to reach max height:

v = u + at ⇒ 0 = 25 − 9.8t

25
t= =2.55 s
9.8

Total time: Time to go up and down:

Ttotal = 2t = 2(2.55) = 5.1s

Answer:
a. Maximum height = 31.89 m.
b. Total time = 5.1 s.

4. Solution:

t₁ = 50 km / 60 km/h = 5/6 hours

t₂ = 100 km / 80 km/h = 5/4 hours
Vavg = 150 km / (25/12 hours) ≈ 72 km/h

Answer: The average speed of the car for the entire journey is approximately
72 km/h.

5. Solution:

-50 m = 0 m/s * t + (1/2)(-8 m/s²) * t²

t² = 50 m / 4 m/s²
t ≈ 3.54 seconds

Answer: It takes approximately 3.54 seconds to hit the ground.

Byju’s. (2022, July 4). A ball is thrown vertically upward relative to the train in a compartment
of a moving train train is moving horizontally- Then- choose the correct options. Retrieved from
https://byjus.com/question-answer/a-ball-is-thrown-vertically-upward-relative-to-the-train-in-a-
compartment-of-a/
 CHAPTER 8

FRICTION

Learning Objectives

1. Learn the different types of friction.

2. Be able to calculate the frictional force on an object.
3. Calculate the minimum force required to overcome static friction.
4. Calculate the net force on an object considering static or kinetic friction.

Friction

Friction is a force that arises to oppose the motion or impedes the motion of the two bodies in
contact.

Types of Friction

Static Friction – the force between two stationary surfaces in contact with each other that
prevents motion between them. It has a certain maximum value called starting friction. The
maximum static friction is greater because it occurs when an object is at rest and there is more
intermolecular attraction between the object and the surface.

Kinetic Friction – occurs when there is relative (sliding) motion at the interface of the surface in
contact. Because kinetic friction occurs when object is moving, the contact time between the
object and the surface is shorter so there is less intermolecular attraction which is why kinetic
friction is less than the maximum static friction.

Rolling Friction – occurs when one surface rotates as it moves over another surface but does
not slip or slide at the point of contact. Rolling friction is the weakest type of friction because the
area of contact is less in rolling friction compared to sliding friction.

Friction on a Sliding Block

N
N=Normal Force
f s=Static Friction
fs,fk f
f k =Kinetic Friction

w=weight
f =External∨apllied force
w
μ = coefficient of friction The directions of f s and f k are always

0≤μ≤1 parallel to the surface. f s is always opposite to the

component of the applied force that is parallel to
μs = coefficient of static friction
the surface and f k is always opposite to the

μk = coefficient of kinetic friction instantaneous velocity of the body relative to the

surface.
f s max =μs N – if the block is at rest, then f s=f
The dimensionless coefficient μs and μk
f k =μk N
depend on the nature of the surfaces in contact
and are independent of the area of contact

Inclined Plane

N f (friction)
tan ϕ= =μ
X w
f
w y =mg cos θ

θ
wx w x =mgsin θ

θ
fs
w wy
Note:

The angle of inclination is equal to the angle between the force of gravity or weight and its y-
component.

To make solving easier, the x-axis will lie along the surface of the incline plane and y-axis will
run perpendicular to the incline plane, perpendicular to the x-axis. The normal force therefore is
equal to the y component of the weight or force of gravity acting on the object. N=w y =w cos θ

Sample Problems
1. A 250 N block is initially at rest on a flat surface that is inclined at 30°. If the coefficient of
static friction is 0.3, find the force (f) required to start the block moving up the plane.

μs =0.3
NY Solution:

f
X f =w x + f s max N =w y =w cos θ
wx
θ f =w sinθ + μs N f =w sinθ + μs w cos θ
θ = 30°
wy f =250 N sin 30° +(¿ 0.3) ( 250 N cos 30° ) ¿
w
f =125 N +64.95 N f =189.95 N

2. A force of 200 N is exerted on a snack box of 5 kg still on the floor. If the coefficient of
friction is 0.3, calculate the static friction.

Fn (Normal force) = 200 N,

μs (Coefficient of friction) = 0.3,
Static friction is given by Fs =μs×Fn
Fs = 0.3 × 200 N
Fs = 60 N.

3. Amy is hauling a toy car of mass 4 kg which was at rest earlier on the floor. If 50 N is the
value of the static frictional force, calculate the friction coefficient.

Known:

m (Mass) = 4 kg,
Fs (static frictional force) = 50 N,
Fn (Normal force) = mg
mg = 4 Kg × 9.8 m/s2
Fn= 39 N

μs = Fs /Fn

μs = 50/39

μs = 1.282
 Activity

1. Force of 100N is exerted on the box kept on the floor with the coefficient of static friction
of 0.2. Find the friction force
2. A 5.00kg block of wood is sliding down a wooden wedge that has an angle 60.0∘ with
respect to the floor. The coefficient of static friction is 0.578. What is the force of kinetic
friction?

3. A 12.0kg box is being pulled along the level ground at constant velocity. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the floor is 0.452. What is the
force of kinetic friction?

Answer Key

1. f s=μ s N

f s=( 0.2 )( 100 N ) f s=20 N

cos 60 ° N=24.53 N ∴ f k =( 0.578 )( 24.53 N )

2. f k =μk N N=w cos θ=( 5 kg ) 9.81 ( m
s
2)
f k =14.18 N
3. f k =μk N

N=w=mg N= ( 12kg ) 9.81 ( m

s
2)=117.72 N

∴ f k =( 0.452 ) ( 117.72 N ) f k =53.21 N

Quiz

1. The force between two stationary surfaces in contact with each other that prevents
motion between them.
2. Occurs when there is relative (sliding) motion at the interface of the surface in contact.
3. Occurs when one surface rotates as it moves over another surface but does not slip or
slide at the point of contact
4. Identify: μk
5. Identify: μs

6. Determine the minimum value and the direction of a force P required to cause motion of
a 200-lb block to impend up a 30° incline. The coefficient of friction is 0.20.

7. The 500-lb block shown in Fig. P-507 is in contact with a 45° incline. The coefficient of
static friction is 0.25. Compute the value of the horizontal force P necessary to just start
the block up the incline.
8. A block of wood with mass 1kg is clamped to a vertical board with a force of 10N.
What is the minimum vertical force needed to move the block upward?

μs=0.15
 m
g=10 2
s

9. A box with mass 20kg is on a cement floor. The coefficient of static friction between the
box and floor is 0.25. A man is pushing the box with a horizontal force of 35N. What is
m
the magnitude of the force of static friction between the box and floor? g=10 2
s
10. A 40kg box is initially sitting at rest on a horizontal floor with a coefficient of static
friction μs =0.4. A horizontal pushing force is applied to the box. What is the maximum
pushing force that can be applied without moving the box?

Answer Key

1. Static Friction
2. Kinetic Friction
3. Rolling Friction
4. Coefficient of kinetic friction
5. Coefficient of static friction
 6. tan ϕ=μ=0.20ϕ=tan−1 0.20=11.31°θ=ϕ +30 °=11.31°+30 °=41.31 °

P=200 lbs sin 41.31 °=132.11lbsα =ϕ=11.31°

7.

−1 fs −1 500 cos 45 ⋅0.25

θ=tan =tan =14.04 °θ+ 45 °=14.04 ° +45 °=59.04 °
N 500 cos 45
90 °−59.04 °=30.96 ° using sine law:

P 500 lb
= P=833.46 lbs
sin 59.04 ° sin 30.96 °

8. F=f s +mg f s=μs N *N=force applied= 10N

F=¿ μs N +mg=( 0.15 ) ( 10 N )+ ( 1kg ) 10 ( ms ) F=11.5 N

2

(
9. f s max =μs N=( 0.25 ) 20 kg ⋅10
m
s )
2
f s max =50 N Since the force applied does not exceed the

maximum static friction, the force of friction is then equal to the applied force.
∴ f s=f a=35 N

(
10. f s max =μs N f s max =( 0.4 ) 40 kg ⋅ 9.81
m
s
2)f s max =156.96 N f s max =Fmax =156.96 N

References
Force of Friction - AP physics 1. Private Tutoring. (n.d.).
https://www.varsitytutors.com/ap_physics_1-help/force-of-friction

YouTube. (n.d.). How to Solve Kinetic Friction Problems. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIBeeW1DSZg

GeeksforGeeks. (2021, July 14). Problems on friction formula.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/problems-on-friction-formula/

Admin. (2022, December 15). Static friction formula with solved examples. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/static-friction-formula/

Alrasheed, S. (2019, April 30). Principles of Mechanics: Fundamental University physics.

Google Books.