1

Experiment No. 5

Steam Quality Determination

OBJECTIVES:

 To be able to determine the quality of steam produced by the MIT Boiler.

 To be familiar in the operation of a steam throttling calorimeter.

THEORY AND ANALYSIS:

Steam is an odorless invisible gas consisting of vaporized water. It is usually interspersed

with minute droplets of water, which gives it a white, cloudy appearance. In nature, steam is
produced by the heating of underground water by volcanic processes and is emitted from hot
springs, geysers, fumaroles, and certain types of volcanoes. Steam also can be generated on a
large scale by technological systems, as, for example, those employing fossil-fuel-burning boilers
and nuclear reactors.

Steam power constitutes an important power source for industrial society. Water is heated to
steam in power plants, and the pressurized steam drives turbines that produce electrical current.
The thermal energy of steam is thus converted to mechanical energy, which in turn is converted into
electricity. The steam used to drive turbo-generators furnishes most of the world’s electric power.
Steam is also widely employed in such industrial processes as the manufacture of steel, aluminum,
copper, and nickel; the production of chemicals; and the refining of petroleum. In the home, steam
has long been used for cooking and heating.

Steam quality is the proportion of saturated steam (vapor) in a saturated condensate (liquid)/
steam (vapor) mixture. A steam quality of 0 indicates 100 % liquid, (condensate) while a steam
quality of 100 indicates 100 % steam. One (1) lb of steam with 90 % steam and 10 % percent of
liquid entrainment has a steam quality of 0.9. The measurements needed to obtain a steam quality
measurement are temperature, pressure, and entrained liquid content. A high percentage (88 % or
more) of industrial steam systems use saturated steam for process applications.

Steam quality can be mathematically calculated with the help of a steam table. Steam table
consist of two sets of tables of the energy transfer properties of water and steam saturated steam
tables and superheated steam tables. The saturated steam tables are divided into two parts:
temperature tables, which list the properties according to saturation temperature (Tsat) and
pressure tables, which list them according to saturation pressure (Psat). Most practical applications
using the saturated steam tables involve steam-water mixtures. The key property of such mixtures is
 2

steam quality (x), defined as the mass of steam present per unit mass of steam-water mixture, or
steam moisture content (y), defined as the mass of water present per unit mass of steam-water
mixture. The following notation is used in steam tables

The following relationships exists between the quality of a liquid-vapor mixture and the
specific volumes, enthalpies, or entropies of both phases and of the mixture itself. These
relationships are used with the saturated steam tables.
 3

Saturated steam/vapor is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure. It has no liquid or

moisture content. Example: Steam at 300-degree C and 8.58 MPa. It exists in complete gaseous
form and contains no liquid. The boiler operation uses chemical energy from a fuel source to deliver
energy to the boiler water. Inside the boiler, liquid gains energy from the combustion process and
changes state into saturated steam.
 4

The following diagrams are PV of pure substance:

Pure Substance is a working substance that has homogeneous and invariable chemical
composition even though there is a change of phase

Working Substance is a substance which energy can be stored or from which energy can
be removed.

Saturation Temperature is the temperature wat which liquid start to boil and vapor start to
condense.

Compressed Liquid is a liquid at the saturation temperature or pressure whose

temperature is equal to the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure. It has no vapor
content.

Vapor is the term given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with the liquid phase.

Superheated Vapor is a vapor whose temperature is higher than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the given pressure.

Degree Superheat is the difference between the actual superheated temperature and
saturation temperature.

Degree Subcooled is the difference between the saturation temperature and the actual
subcooled temperature.

Water Vapor is a mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid.

 5

Quality of Wet Vapor is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated vapor It is the
ratio of the mass of saturated vapor to the total mass of the mixture.

mg
X=
mt

Where:

X =¿ quality of wet vapor

mg =¿ mass of vapor

mt =¿ mass of the mixture (wet vapor)

Critical Point is a point that represents the pressure and temperature at which liquid and
vapor can coexist in equilibrium.

Today’s manufacturing techniques of heat transfer, control, and standards are all dedicated
to improving and providing the highest quality product to the market place. To attain the highest
quality, each manufactured component of the final product is inspected repeatedly, and measured
for its quality to ensure that it meets the manufacturers and consumer’s expectations. Steam is a
vital and critical part in producing the final product; therefore, steam quality should be one of the
main measurable points in producing a product in today’s manufacturing facility. All heat transfer
components (shell/tube, plate/frame, plate/coil, tracing, etc.) base performance calculations on 100
% steam quality, unless the manufacturer is informed by the end user that the steam quality is lower
than 100 %. Unfortunately, steam quality is typically not monitored closely and is assumed to be 100
% quality. Therefore, issues that arise from poor steam quality are blamed on some other item in the
system. Based on field documentation by Swagelok Energy Advisors Inc., a high percentage of
steam systems are operating below acceptable steam quality levels.

Low steam quality affects steam system operations in many ways. Below is the effect of low
steam quality:

1. Reduced heat transfer efficiency: The major problem with low steam quality is the effect
on the heat transfer equipment and process. In some cases, low steam quality can reduce heat
transfer efficiency by more than 65 %. The liquid entrained in the steam has sensible energy (16 %
estimated – varies with pressure) which has a significantly lower amount of energy than the steam
vapor’s latent energy (94 %). Therefore, less usable energy is being delivered to the steam process
equipment. Also, the additional liquid (low steam quality) collects on the wetted surface of the heat
exchanger causing an additional build-up of a liquid which reduces the ability of the steam’s latent
energy to be transfer to the product.
 6

2. Premature Valve Failure: Liquid passing through steam control valves will erode the
internals of the valves causing premature failure.

3. Internal Turbine Component Failures: Liquid introduced with the steam in a saturated
turbine operation will reduce the life expectancy of the internal components.

4. Water hammer Steam systems are usually not designed to accommodate the additional
liquid in steam. Additional liquid creates the chance for water hammer to occur. Water hammer is a
safety issue and may cause premature failure in the steam system.

A true measurement of steam quality can be obtained from the use of a throttling calorimeter
and Ganapathy’s steam plant calculations. Unfortunately, most industrial plants do not have the
luxury or capability of doing the testing. Another way to measure steam quality is relying on the
basics of steam. Saturated steam is a dry invisible gas and only becomes visible with the entrained
air or liquid. Therefore, opening a steam valve and allowing steam to be released into the
atmosphere provides an estimate of the steam quality in the system.

If we have steam that is nearly dry, we make use of a throttling calorimeter as shown in
figure. This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is not
partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the pressure and
temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric pressure, the saturation should
be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is superheated.

When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before throttling is read from
the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge pressure are read from the
thermometer and manometer respectively.
 7

In the experiment, the researcher is focused on the determination of steam quality. The
formula below is utilized to determine the steam quality or the dryness fraction of steam.

hg 2 +c p ( T c −T 2 ) −hf 1
X=
h fg1
Where:

ℎ𝑔2 = is the enthalpy at calorimeter pressure (vapor)

𝑐𝑝 = heat capacity of steam (0.46 BTU/lb)

𝑇𝑐 = calorimeter temperature

𝑇2 = saturated temperature at calorimeter pressure

ℎ𝑓1 = enthalpy at steam pressure (liquid)

ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = enthalpy at steam pressure (mixture of liquid and vapor)

LIST OF APPARATUS

1.Throttling Calorimeter

2. Mercury Manometer
 8

3. Thermometer

4. Stop Watch

5. Steam table
 9

PROCEDURES:

1. Purge the water and

impurities inside the steam
pipeline.

2. Insert the thermometer bulb

inside the throttling calorimeter
well

3. Connect the hose of the Hg manometer

through the drain valve.

4. Open the gate valve and let the steam enter

the calorimeter.
 10

5. Duration of the trial is 3 minutes.

6. Let the condition of the steam inside stabilize before recording the steam line pressure,
calorimeter well temperature and Hg manometer reading.

7. Calculate all the necessary requirements needed to complete the data sheet.

SET-UP OF APPARATUS
 11

FINAL DATA SHEET

Trial Steam Calorimeter Manomete Calorimeter t2 hf1 Hfg1 hg2 %

Pressur Temperature r Reading Pressure (F) BTU/l BTU/lb BTU/lb
e P1 tc (F) “Hg P2 (psi) b
(psi)

3
 12

X = [hg2 + Cp(tc − t2 ) − hf1]/ hfg1

Where:
Cp=0.46 (steam)
P2=pressure inside the calorimeter based on manometer reading
t2=saturation temperature of P2
tc=temperature of steam inside the calorimeter
P1=steam pipeline pressure

SAMPLE COMPUTATION

Steam Pressure

𝑃1 = (23 + 14.7𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎) ( 0.101325𝑀𝑃𝑎/ 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 ) = 0.2599 Mpa

Calorimeter Pressure

𝑃1 = ( 1 4 + 29.92𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑔) ( 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎/29.92 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑔) = 14.82 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 (0.101325𝑀𝑃𝑎/ 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 ) =
0.1022 Mpa

Steam Quality

𝑋 = [2676.424 + 1.996(86 − 100.23) − 540.82] /2177.85 𝑥100%

𝑋 = 96.75 %

Comparing:

ℎ2 = 2676.3264 ℎ𝑓 = 540.90 ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2177.8

𝑋 = 98.05 %
 13

OBSERVATION
 14

REFERENCES
 Importance of Steam Quality. (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.forbesmarshall.com/fm_micro/news_room.aspx?Id=boilers&nid=175
 Steam Quality Testing. (2018). Retrieved from https://consteril.com/steam-quality-testing/
 Steam Quality. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.quora.com/What-is-quality-of-steam
 Quantifying Steam Quality. (2018). Retrieved from
https://www.plantservices.com/articles/2003/378/
 https://www.engineersedge.com/thermodynamics/steam_tables.htm
 Steam Quality. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.swagelok.com/~/media/Distributor
%20Media/C-G/Chicago/Services/ES%20- %20Steam%20Quality_BP_23.ashx

Experiment No. 6
 15

Performance Evaluation of 4-Strokes Diesel Engine

OBJECTIVES

1. To familiarize ourselves with the engine operation,

2. To be able to know the basic principle behind the operation.

3. To determine and understand the different parts and functions.

4. To be able to calculate the different parameters of our M.E. laboratory engine when
subjected to varying loads.

MATERIALS:
1. Diesel Engine Test Bed
2. Engine Analyzer

THEORY AND PRINCIPLE

Diesel engine, any internal-combustion engine in which air is compressed to a sufficiently

high temperature to ignite diesel fuel injected into the cylinder, where combustion and expansion
actuate a piston. It converts the chemical energy stored in the fuel into mechanical energy, which
can be used to power freight trucks, large tractors, locomotives, and marine vessels. A limited
number of automobiles also are diesel-powered, as are some electric-power generator sets.

The diesel engine is an intermittent-combustion piston-cylinder device. It operates on either

a two-stroke or four-stroke cycle (see figure); however, unlike the spark-ignition gasoline engine, the
diesel engine induces only air into the combustion chamber on its intake stroke. Diesel engines are
typically constructed with compression ratios in the range 14:1 to 22:1. Both two- stroke and four-
stroke engine designs can be found among engines with bores (cylinder diameters) less than 600
mm (24 inches). Engines with bores of greater than 600 mm are almost exclusively two-stroke cycle
systems.
 16

Fig. 1. Diesel Engine Cycle

The following processes are part of the diesel cycle:

Isentropic Compression (Process 1-2)

1. This process is called isentropic as there is no heat transferred (adiabatic) to or from the
system and it is a reversible process.
2. The gas inside the cylinder is compressed isentropically from a volume VI to V2.
3. The ratio of VI and V2 is referred to as the compression ratio.
4. Work is done by the piston on gases (negative work Win), which means external work has to
be done to compress the gases.

This process is characterized by the compression stroke of the 4-stoke cycle.

Isobaric Heat Addition (Process 2-3)

 Isobaric means that the process carried out at constant pressure.

 With the pressure being constant, heat is added externally until volume V3 is reached.
 The ratio of V3 and V2 is referred to as the cut-off ratio.
 Heat is added to the system (positive heat Qin), by combusting the air-fuel mixture.
 This process is characterized by the initial part of the power stroke of the 4-stroke cycle, until
volume has expanded to V3.
 17

Isentropic Expansion (Process 3-4)

This process is also isentropic.

1. The gas inside the cylinder expands from V3 to V4 which is equal to VI.
2. The ratio of V4 (or V1) and V3 is known as the expansion ratio.
3. Work is done by the gases on the piston (positive work Wout), thus powering the engine by
pushing the piston down.
4. This process is characterized by the final part of the power stroke of the 4-stroke cycle, until
volume has expanded to V4.

Isochoric Expansion (Process 4 1)

 Isobaric means that the process carried out at constant volume.

 With the volume being constant, heat is removed until pressure comes down to pl.
 Heat is removed from the system (negative heat Qout), by flushing out the combusted
gases.
 This process is characterized by the exhaust and intake stroke of the 4-stroke cycle.

PROCEDURES
1. Prepare the diesel engine test bed and the engine analyzer.
2. Connect all the wires, tubes, and pipes from the engine analyzer to the respective parts of the
engine test bed. Ensure that the connections are connected properly and there must be no
presence of leakage and bubbles.
3. Before starting the engine, prime the machine first.
4. Start the engine and adjust the speed by throttling the fuel inlet until it stabilize.
5. Record the data from engine analyzer directed to the computer software.
6. Verify the experimented data by re-computing the values using the formulae in the Theory and
Principle part.
 18

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:

Fig.2. Typical Sequence of Cycle in a Diesel Engine

Data Sheet
Description Unit
Fuel Consumption, ṁ f
Fuel Density
Fuel Calorific Value, C L
Heat Combustion, H f
Inlet Air Enthalpy, H A
Ambient Air Temperature
Exhaust Air Temperature
Air Differential Pressure
Ambient Air Pressure
Orifice Diameter
Air Mass Flow Rate
Torque
Speed
Power
Air Fuel Ratio
Specific Consumption
Thermal Efficiency
Volumetric Efficiency
Engine Capacity
Number of Cylinders
BMEP
Observation:
 19

Experiment No. 6

Performance Evaluation of a Split Air Conditioning System Under the

Actual Conditions

Objectives:

1. To determine the of measurement of total energy consumption under the

fluctuating conditions.
2. To calculate starting performance.

Apparatus used:

 Room type calorimeter chamber

 Outdoor unit (condenser in cooling cycle) and an indoor unit
(evaporator in cooling cycle)
 Split Type Air Conditioning System

Description of the Test:

In this experiment, the room type calorimeter chamber which own Kogakuin
University is used. This chamber has been used for evaluation of building environment and
designed for architecture environment system, and it has a pair of chambers for
comparative experiments. We installed an outdoor unit (condenser in cooling cycle) and an
indoor unit (evaporator in cooling cycle) in each chamber. The floor plan of experimental unit
is shown in figure 1 and the specification of a calorimeter chamber is shown in Table 1.
Thermal load of chambers is controlled by supply air conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity,
and air volume). The air conditioning system of this chamber has cooling and heating coil,
steam generator and VAV (Variable Air Volume) system as shown fig. 2. As this chamber is
not able to set a freezing condition, a refrigerating machine is attached to compensate it.
The test unit is general marketing air conditioning system which is inverter controlled and
split type. The specification of a test unit is shown in Table 2. Figureshows a deification of
supplied thermal load to a test chamber. The generated available heat of test units is
defined as supplied thermal load to chamber for measurement term.

Table 1: Specification of a calorimeter chamber

Designation Specifications
Refrigerator Air cooling chiller (45kW)
Heater Electric heater (40kW)
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Cool bath FRP sandwich panel (3m3)

Heat bath Monocoque steel (2m3)
Outdoor air conditioning unit Air volume (1000m3/h)
Air conditioning system for chambers Air volume (1000m3/h)
Package air conditioner for thermal buffer Multi type, 8 indoor units (5Hp)
zone
Controllable temp. -5 to 50 (°C)
Controllable humidity value 10 to 100 (%)
Chamber size 5.9 (L)×4.1 (W)× 5.5 (H)
Wall heat transfer coefficient Under 0.2W/m2K
Thermal insulation Polystyrene foam (200mm)

Table 2: Specification of a test unit

Designation Specifications

Electric 3Φ 200V
Source
Refrigerant R - 410A

Cooling 3.60 kW
capacity
Heating 4.00 kW
capacity
Cooling 4.13
Rated COP
Heating 4.26
Indoor unit Ceiling suspended type
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13400 (mm)

Fig. 1: Floor plan of calorimeter chamber Fig. 2: Piping diagram of heat source

0:00 0:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 Time

Fig. 3: Definition of supplied thermal load.

Theory and Analysis:

In a calorimeter chambers, it is difficult to reproduce an actual thermal load pattern
exactly. So, we arranged simply thermal load pattern using “CASCADE3 “(Computer Aided
Simulation for Cogeneration Assessment & design) which is typical office building load
pattern in Japan. The simulated operating term is 8:00 to 19:00. The thermal load and
weather data assumed actual condition by “CASCADE3 “are shown in Fig. 4(winter) and
Fig. 5(summer). Fig. 6 shows the supplied heating load and whether setting and also, Fig. 7
shows the supplied cooling load and whether setting. The experimental condition has 4 term
patterns. The outside weather conditions are used the AMeDAS (Automated Meteorological
 22

Data Acquisition System) data in Otemachi, Tokyo. As for the temperature and humidity,
calculated mean value in July and January are used.

The recommended setting temperature of air conditioning system is 20°C (Heating)

and 28°C (Cooling) in Japan. But, according to our research, indoor setting temperatures is
higher in winter and lower in summer than it and set the experimental conditions as shown
in table 4 and table 5.

Fig. 4: Weather condition and thermal Load Fig. 5: Weather condition and thermal Load
(Winter, January) (Summer, July)

Fig. 6: Supplied heating load and whether setting Fig. 7: Supplied cooling load and
whether setting.

Table 4: Test setting condition (winter) Table 5: Test setting condition (summer)

Indoor Side Outdoor Side Indoor Side Outdoor Side

DB RH Load DB RH DB RH Load DB RH
 23

(°C) (%) (kW) (°C) (%) (°C) (%) (kW) (°C) (%)

The starting performance test is done under the conditions which are given in Table
6. The test unit is operated in original control logic till the conditions of chamber reaches the
targeted value. On the summer term in Japan, a short circuit phenomenon by waste heat
from condenser occurs, because of the outdoor units are equipped in small area on the top
of the building. Then, the efficiency of a heat exchanger on condenser deteriorates
remarkably. Therefore, we set the high temperature condition assumed its phenomenon.
On the middle season between summer and winter, the cooling demands are higher than
the heating one. The outside temperature is set to 20°C as a representative of this term. On
the winter term, parameters in the table are typical values in Japan.

Table 6: Test conditions for performance test including start period.

Indoor side Outdoor side

*T.L.F
DB (°C) RH (%) DB (°C) RH (%)
(%)

Summer

Middle

Winter

*T.L.F: Thermal Load Factor

Data:
The experiment results of a fluctuating condition test are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9.
At the winter condition test, the test units frequently repeat start and stop following a
defrosting, and indoor temperature changed less than 3 degrees Celsius. Also, because the
control of attached refrigerating machine is not good, the outside temperature is changed
 24

remarkably. At a summer condition tests, as a thermal heat load is high, a compressor is

running continually. For this reason, the test result is comparatively good.

(Thermal

Load: kW)
00:0000:3001:0001:3002:00 02:3003:00 03:30
04:0004:3005:0005:30
(Time)
Fig. 8: Performance on winter condition test Fig. 9: Performance on summer condition
test

Table 7: Results of fluctuating condition test

Total power
Supplied thermal load (kWh) Measured COP COP Ratio (%)
consumption (kWh)

Summer

Winter

Table 7 shows results of fluctuating condition test.

By the test that assumed a summer weekday in an office building, the average of measured
COP is 3.07. This value is equivalent to about 75% of a rated COP (catalogue) value. In the same
way, the test results that assumed winter weekday is 1.87 and this one is equivalent to about 44%
of a rated COP. In this way, a result of the winter season is particularly different from its rated COP
value.

The total energy efficiency including starting period is measured. Fig.10 to Fig. 15 shows
each starting performance results with 100% and 50% thermal load in the winter, middle and
summer season. On the winter condition with 50% thermal load, as the test units frequently repeat
 25

start and stop following a defrosting, the energy consumption efficiency is getting lower. Test unit
has this operation mode for refrigerant circuit and hardware protection. At the summer condition,
power consumption is twice as high by comparison rated power consumption.

(Thermal Load: kW) (Temp: ℃)

00:0000:1000:2000:3000:4000:50
01:00 (Time)

Fig. 10: Starting performance on winter condition Fig. 11: Starting performance on winter
condition.
(100% thermal load). (50% thermal load)

Fig. 12: Starting performance on middle condition Fig. 13: Starting performance on middle
condition. (100% thermal load) (50% thermal load)
 26

Fig. 14: Starting performance on summer condition Fig. 15: Starting performance on summer
condition (100% thermal load) (50% thermal load)

At the starting period, the unit demands many power resources, so the energy
efficiency is getting lower. The COP ratio is about 50%. The fluctuation of room temperature
with the defrost operation at heating. On the summer condition test, test unit is following to
the change of the condition. It shows the inverter control has much influence to the energy
saving. The performance including start period is lower than rated value. The rush current is
characteristic phenomenon at start period, but arrow for that, lowers performance at the
winter conditions.

On a winter condition, on-off operation for defrost is observed. Because of that, the
total energy consumption efficiency is lower than summer condition. The performance of
middle season is favorable. It is thought of as the designing concept of air conditioner
matches this range.

Table 8: Results of start performance test

Total Energy Supplied

Thermal
Consumption Thermal Measured COP
Condition Load
(kWh) Load COP Ratio (%)
Factor (%)
(kWh)

Summer
 27

Middle

Winter

Observation:
 28

References

Japanese Standards Association, 1999, Ducted air-conditioners and air-to-air heat pumps Testing
and rating for performance JIS B 8615-1, Japanese Standard Association: p.2-42.
Japanese Standards Association, 1999, Ducted air-conditioners and air-to-air heat pumps Testing
and rating for performance JIS B 8615-2, Japanese Standard Association: p.2-42.
The Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association, 1995, Package Air Conditioners
JRA 4002,
Japanese Standard Association: p.1-70.
The Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association, 2001, Calculating method of
annual power consumption for package air conditioners JRA4048, Japanese Standard
Association: p.5-30.
International Organization for Standardization, 1994, Non-Ducted air conditioners and heat pumps -
Testing and rating for Performance, International Organization for Standardization,
Geneve Switzerland: p.1-19.