BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Form hypothesis
Anatomy Test the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing


Anatomy – (ah-nat′o-me) is the study of the data



structure and shape of the body and its parts and

their relationships to one another. Derived from the Relationship Between Anatomy and Physiology
Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana), is Anatomy and physiology are always inseparable.
related most closely to gross anatomical studies The parts of your body form a well-organized unit,
because in such studies, preserved animals or their and each of those parts has a job to do to make the
organs are dissected (cut up) to be examined. body operate as a whole. Structure determines
what functions can take place.
Gross Anatomy – Study large structures in out body
such as heart or bones. We are studying large, Level of Structural Organization
observable structures. From Atoms to Organisms

Surface Anatomy – exterior features.

Regional Anatomy – body areas


Sectional Anatomy – cross sections



Systematic Anatomy – organ systems



Clinical Anatomy – Medical specialties



Developmental Anatomy – from conception to



adulthood, including embryology



Microscopic Anatomy – the study of body structures

that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Examines cells and molecules.

Cytology – study of cells

Histology – study of tissues



Physiology
Physiology – (fiz″e-ol′o-je) is the study of how the
body and its parts work or function (physio =
nature; ology = the study of)

Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions.

For example, neurophysiology explains the
workings of the nervous system, and cardiac Chemical Level – atoms, tiny building blocks of
physiology studies the function of the heart. matter, combine to form molecules such as water,
sugar, and proteins, like those that make up our
Cell physiology – functions of cells muscles. Molecules, in turn, associate in specific
Organ physiology – functions of specific organs ways to form microscopic cells, the smallest units of


Systematic physiology – functions of organ all living things. All cells have some common


systems structures and functions, but individual cells vary



Pathological physiology – effects of diseases on widely in size, shape, and their particular roles in
organs or systems. the body.


A patient may present with The simplest living creatures are composed of
single cells, but in complex organisms such as trees
Signs (such as a fever) – as detected by nurse,
or human beings, the structural ladder continues on
dr, attendant

to the tissue level. Tissues consist of groups of
Symptoms (such as tiredness) – as felt by the
similar cells that have a common function. There
patient

are four basic tissue types, and each plays a definite
Physicians use the scientific method to reach a but different role in the body.
diagnosis by evaluating observations
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
An organ is a structure composed of two or more located in the skin alert us to what is happening at
tissue types that performs a specific function for the the body surface.
body. At the organ level of organization, extremely
complex functions become possible. For example, Forms the external body covering; protects deeper
the small intestine, which digests and absorbs food, tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location
is composed of all four tissue types. An organ of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and
system is a group of organs that work together to sweat and oil glands.
accomplish a common purpose. In all, 11 organ Skeletal System
systems make up the living human being, or the The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilages,
organism, which represents the highest level of and joints. It supports the body and provides a
structural organization, the organismal level. The framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause
organismal level is the sum total of all structural movement. It also has protective functions (for
levels working together to keep us example, the skull encloses and protects the brain),
alive. and the cavities of the skeleton are the sites where
blood cells are formed. The hard substance of bones
acts as a storehouse for minerals.
Summary:
Chemical Level Protects and supports body organs; provides a
 Atoms are the smallest stable framework the muscles use to cause movement;
units of matter. blood cells are formed within bones; stores
 Molecules consist of groups of minerals.
atoms Muscular System
Cellular Level – a unit structure The muscles of the body have only one function— to
 Cells are the smallest living units in the body contract, or shorten. When this happens, movement
Tissue Level – tissue is a group of cells working occurs. The mobility of the body as a whole reflects
together the activity of skeletal muscles, the large, fleshy
Organ Level – organs are made of two or more muscles attached to bones. When these contract,
tissues working together. you are able to stand erect, walk, jump, grasp,
Organ System Level – organ system is a group of throw a ball, or smile. The skeletal muscles form
interacting organs. Humans have 11 organ systems. the muscular system. These muscles are distinct
Organism Level – an individual life form is an from the muscles of the heart and of other hollow
organism organs, which move fluids (such as blood or urine)
or other substances (such as food) along definite
pathways within the body.

Allows manipulation of the environment,

locomotion, and facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.

Nervous System
Organ System Overview The nervous system is the body’s
Integumentary System fast-acting control system. It
The integumentary (in-teg″u-men′tar-e) system is consists of the brain, spinal cord,
the external covering of the body, or the skin, nerves, and sensory receptors. The
including the hair and fingernails. It waterproofs body must be able to respond to
the body and cushions and protects the deeper stimuli coming from outside the
tissues from injury. With the help of body (such as light, sound, or
sunlight, it produces vitamin D. It changes in temperature) and from
also excretes salts in perspiration inside the body (such as decreases
and helps regulate body in oxygen or stretching of tissue).
temperature. Sensory receptors The sensory receptors detect
changes in temperature, pressure, or light, and
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
send messages (via electrical signals called nerve carrier, the cardiovascular system delivers oxygen,
impulses) to the central nervous system (brain and nutrients, hormones, and other substances to, and
spinal cord) so that it is constantly informed about picks up wastes such as carbon dioxide from, cells
what is going on. The central nervous system then near sites of exchange. White blood cells and
assesses this information and responds by chemicals in the blood help to protect the body
activating the appropriate body effectors (muscles from such foreign invaders as bacteria, viruses, and
or glands, which are organs that produce tumor cells. The heart propels blood out of its
secretions). chambers into blood vessels to be transported to all
body tissues.
Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to
internal and external changes by activating Blood vessels transport blood, which carries
appropriate muscles and glands. oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide,
wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood.

Lymphatic System
The role of the lymphatic system complements that
of the cardiovascular system. Its organs include
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid
organs such as the spleen and tonsils. When fluid is
leaked into tissues from the blood, lymphatic
vessels return it to the bloodstream so that there is
enough blood to continuously circulate through the
Endocrine System body. The lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs
Like the nervous system, the endocrine (en′do-krin)
help to cleanse the blood and house white blood
system controls body activities, but it acts much
cells involved in immunity.
more slowly. Endocrine glands produce chemical
molecules called hormones and release them into Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns
the blood to travel to relatively distant target it to blood; disposes of debris in
organs. the lymphatic stream; houses
white blood cells involved in
The endocrine glands include the pituitary,
immunity.
thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas,
pineal, ovaries (in the female), and testes (in the
male). The endocrine glands are not connected
anatomically in the same way that the parts of other
organ systems are. What they have in common is
that they all secrete hormones, which regulate
other structures. The body functions controlled by
hormones are many and varied, involving every cell Respiratory System
in the body. Growth, The job of the respiratory system is to keep the
reproduction, and the use of body supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon
nutrients by cells are all dioxide. The respiratory system consists of the
controlled (at least in part) by nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
hormones. and lungs. Within the lungs are tiny air sacs. Gases
are exchanged with the blood
Glands secrete hormones that
through the thin walls of these
regulate processes such as
air sacs.
growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use by body cells. Keeps blood constantly
supplied with oxygen and
Cardiovascular System
removes carbon dioxide;
The primary organs of the
cardiovascular system are the heart
and blood vessels. Using blood as a
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of Reproductive System
the air sacs of the lungs. The role of the reproductive system is to produce
offspring. The male testes produce sperm. Other
Digestive System male reproductive system structures are the
The digestive system is basically a tube running scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and the duct
through the body from mouth to anus. The organs system, which carries sperm to the outside of the
of the digestive system include the oral cavity body. The female ovaries produce eggs, or ova; the
(mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large female duct system consists of the uterine tubes,
intestines, and rectum plus a number of accessory uterus, and vagina. The uterus provides the site for
organs (liver, salivary glands, pancreas, and the development of the fetus (immature infant)
others). Their role is to break down food and deliver once fertilization has occurred.
the resulting nutrients to the blood for dispersal to
body cells. The breakdown activities that begin in Overall function of the reproductive system is
the mouth are completed in the small intestine. production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and
From that point on, the major function of the male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery
digestive system is to reabsorb water. The of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract.
undigested food that remains in the tract leaves the Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones;
body through the anus as feces. The liver is remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
considered a digestive organ because the bile it and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of
produces helps to break down fats. The pancreas, female breasts produce milk to nourish the
which delivers digestive enzymes to the small newborn.
intestine, has both endocrine and digestive
functions. Maintaining Life
Necessary Life Functions
Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that Organ systems do not work in isolation; instead,
enter the blood for distribution to body cells; they work together to promote the well-being of the
indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. entire body. Because this theme is emphasized
throughout this text, it is worthwhile to identify the
Urinary System most important organ systems contributing to each
A normal part of healthy body of the necessary life functions.
function is the production of waste
by-products, which must be Maintaining Boundaries
disposed of. One type of waste Every living organism must be able to maintain
contains nitrogen (examples are its boundaries so that its “inside” remains distinct
urea and uric acid), which results from its “outside.” Every cell of the human body is
when the body cells break down surrounded by an external membrane that
proteins and nucleic acids, which separates its contents from the outside interstitial
are genetic information molecules. fluid (fluid between cells) and allows entry of
The urinary system removes the needed substances while generally preventing entry
nitrogen-containing wastes from of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.
the blood and flushes them from the body in urine. The body as a whole is also enclosed by the
This system, often called the excretory system, is integumentary system, or skin. The integumentary
composed of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and system protects internal organs from drying out
urethra. Other important functions of this system (which would be fatal), from pathogens, and from
include maintaining the body’s water and salt the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an
(electrolyte) balance, regulating the acid-base unbelievable number of chemical substances in the
balance of the blood, and helping to regulate external environment.
normal blood pressure.
Movement
Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the Movement includes all the activities promoted by
body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves
balance of the blood. from one place to another (by walking, swimming,
and so forth) and manipulating the external
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
environment with our fingers. The skeletal system digestive system rids the body of indigestible food
provides the bones that the muscles pull on as they residues in feces, the urinary system disposes of
work. Movement also occurs when substances such nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in urine, and
as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled the skin disposes of various waste products as
through the internal organs of the cardiovascular, components of sweat.
digestive, and urinary systems, respectively.
Reproduction
Responsiveness Reproduction, the production of offspring, can
Responsiveness, or irritability, is the ability to sense occur on the cellular or organismal level. In cellular
changes (stimuli) in the environment and then to reproduction, the original cell divides, producing
react to them. For example, if you accidentally two identical daughter cells that may then be used
touch a hot pan, you involuntarily pull your hand for body growth or repair. Reproduction of the
away from the painful stimulus (the pan). You do human organism is the task of the organs of the
not need to think about it—it just happens! reproductive system, which produce sperm and
Likewise, when the amount of carbon dioxide in eggs. When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized
your blood rises to a dangerously high level, your egg forms, which then develops into a baby within
breathing rate speeds up to blow off the excess the mother’s body. The function of the reproductive
carbon dioxide. Because nerve cells are highly system is regulated very precisely by hormones of
irritable and can communicate rapidly with each the endocrine system.
other via electrical impulses, the nervous system
bears the major responsibility for responsiveness. Growth
Growth can be an increase in cell size or an
However, all body cells are responsive to some
increase in body size that is usually accomplished
extent
by an increase in the number of cells. For growth to
Digestion occur, cell-constructing activities must occur at a
Digestion is the process of breaking down ingested faster rate than cell-destroying ones. Hormones
food into simple molecules that can then be released by the endocrine system play a major role
absorbed into the blood. The nutrient-rich blood is in directing growth.
then distributed to all body cells by the
cardiovascular system, where body cells use these
simple molecules for energy and raw materials. Survival Needs
Nutrients:
Metabolism
 Carbohydrates: Primary energy source for
►
Metabolism is a broad term that refers to all
chemical reactions that occur within the body and body cells.
all of its cells. It includes breaking down complex  Proteins: Essential for building cell
substances into simpler building blocks (as in structures.
digestion), making larger structures from smaller  Fats:
ones, and using nutrients and oxygen to produce  Provide reserve fuel.
molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the  Cushion body organs.
energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities.  Aid in cell structure.
Metabolism depends on the digestive and  Minerals and Vitamins:
respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen  Required for chemical reactions in cells.
available to the blood and on the cardiovascular  Assist in oxygen transport in the blood.
system to distribute these needed substances Oxygen:
 Vital for energy release from food.
►
throughout the body. Metabolism is regulated
chiefly by hormones secreted by the glands of the  Human cells can only survive for a few
endocrine system. minutes without oxygen.
 Oxygen is supplied through the cooperative
Excretion efforts of the respiratory and cardiovascular
Excretion is the process of removing excreta (ek- systems.
skre′tah), or wastes, from the body. Several organ Water:
systems participate in excretion. For example, the  Makes up 60-80% of body weight.
►
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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 Most abundant chemical substance in the Superior Toward the head
body. (cranial or end or upper part of
 Provides fluid base for body secretions and cephalic) a structure or the
excretions. body; above
 Obtained from food and liquids; lost through Inferior Away from the head
evaporation (lungs and skin) and excretions. (caudal) end or toward the
► Body Temperature: lower part of a
structure or the
 Normal body temperature: 37°C (98.6°F).
body; below
 Importance: Anterior Toward or at the
 Low temperature: Slows down metabolic (ventral) front of the body: in
reactions, can lead to death. front of
 High temperature: Speeds up chemical Posterior Toward or at the
reactions, causes breakdown of body (dorsal) backside of the
proteins, can lead to death. body; behind
 Skeletal muscles generate most body heat. Medial Toward or at the
 Heat dissipation: Through blood circulation midline of the body;
near the skin surface or by evaporation of on the inner side of
sweat. Lateral Away from midline
► Atmospheric Pressure: of the body; on the
outer side of
 Force exerted by the weight of air on the
Intermedia Between a more
body’s surface.
te medial and a more
 Essential for breathing and gas exchange in
lateral structure
the lungs.
Proximal Close to the origin
 Low atmospheric pressure (e.g., at high
of the body part or
altitudes) can slow down gas exchange, the point of
affecting cellular metabolism. attachment of a
► Balance of Survival Factors: limb to the body
 Presence of survival factors (nutrients, trunk.
oxygen, water, temperature, atmospheric Distal Farther from the
pressure) is crucial but must be in proper origin of a body
amounts. part or the point of
 Excess or deficit in these factors can be attachment of a
harmful (e.g., poor nutrition can lead to limb to the body
diseases, obesity, or starvation) trunk
The Language of Anatomy Superficial Toward or at the
Anatomical Position (external) body surface
A standard position used as a reference in anatomy
Deep Away from the body
to describe body parts and their locations. (internal) surface; more
 Body is erect. internal
 Feet are parallel.
 Arms hang at the sides.
 Palms face forward (thumbs pointing away from
the body).
Regional Terms
NOTE : All body terminology refers to this position,
Visible landmarks of the body with specific
regardless of the body’s actual posture.
anatomical names to describe different regions.
Directional Terms
Example: The abdominal region, cranial region,
Used to describe the location of one body part
thoracic region.
relative to another. It allows medical personnel and
anatomists to explain exactly where one body
The Anatomical Position and Regional Terms
structure is in relation to another.

Term Definition Illustration

BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Posterior/Dorsal Body Landmarks
calcaneal – heel of foot cephalic – head
femoral – thigh gluteal – buttock
lumbar – area of back occipital – posterior
between ribs and hips; surface of head or base
the loin of skull
olecranal – posterior popliteal – posterior
surface of elbow knee area
sacral – area between scapular – shoulder
hips at base of spine blade region
sural – the posterior vertebral – area of
surface of leg; the calf spinal column
plantar region – sole of
the foot

Body Planes and Sections

Plane – Imaginary lines used to make cuts through
the body to observe internal structures. These cuts
Anterior/Ventral Body Landmarks are called sections.
abdominal – anterior acromial – point of
body trunk inferior to shoulder Sagittal Plane
ribs - a cut along a lengthwise, or longitudinal, plane


antebrachial – forearm antecubital – anterior of the body, dividing the body into right and left
surface of elbow parts.
axillary – armpit brachial – arm - Divides the body into right and left parts
buccal – cheek area carpal – wrist - Midsagittal plane: a cut exactly down the
cervical – neck region coxal – hip
middle, dividing the body into equal right and
crural – anterior leg; deltoid – curve of
left halves.
the shin shoulder formed by
- Parasagittal plane: any sagittal cut that is off-
large deltoid muscle
center, creating unequal left and right parts.
digital – fingers, toes femoral – thigh (applies
to both anterior and Frontal Plane (coronal plane)
- Divides the body into anterior (front) and

posterior)
fibular – lateral part of frontal – forehead posterior (back) parts.
leg Transverse Plane (cross-section)
inguinal – area where mental – chin - Divides the body into superior (upper) and


thigh meets body trunk; inferior (lower) parts.

groin
nasal – nose area oral – mouth Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans help
orbital – eye area patellar – anterior knee view body organs by taking images along different
pectoral – relating to, pelvic – area overlying planes to gain information on organ positioning. “A
or occurring in or on, the pelvis anteriorly Closer Look”
the chest
pubic – genital region sternal – breastbone
area
tarsal – ankle region thoracic – area between
the neck and abdomen,
supported by the ribs,
sternum and coastal
cartilages; chest
umbilical – navel
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
- contains the lungs, heart, and other
structures.
- the rib cage protects these organs.
- the mediastinum is the central region
within the thoracic cavity that separates the
lungs and houses the heart, trachea, and
other organs.
b. Abdominopelvic Cavity (inferior)
- located below the diaphragm.
Subdivided into:
a. Abdominal Cavity: contains organs like
stomach, liver, intestines, and others.
b. Pelvic Cavity: contains reproductive
organs, bladder, and rectum.
- Unlike the thoracic Cavity, the
abdominopelvic cavity is not protected by
bones, making its organs more vulnerable to
Body Cavities
injury.
Body Cavities – Spaces
- walls are formed only of trunk muscles.
within the body that
- Pelvic Organs receive protection from the
contain vital organs.
bony pelvis.
These cavities provide
different levels of
protection to the organs. Abdominopelvic
Quadrants:
Two Major Body
Cavities: These cavities For study and
provide different diagnosis, the
degrees of protection to abdominopelvic cavity
the organs within them. is divided into four
quadrants:
1. Dorsal Body Cavities
Two Subdivisions: - Right Upper
a. Cranial Cavity Quadrant
- Located inside - Right Lower
the bony skull. Quadrant
- Contains and protects the brain. - Left Upper Quadrant
b. Spinal Cavity - Left Lower Quadrant
- extends from the cranial cavity down to the
end of spinal cord. Another system, used mainly by anatomists, divides
- contains and protects the spinal cord, the abdominopelvic cavity into nine separate
which is a continuation of the brain. regions by four planes. The abdominopelvic cavity
- the bony vertebrae from the spine and can be divided into nine regions using four
protect the spinal cord. imaginary planes. This system allows for more
detailed localization of organs compared to the
2. Ventral Body Cavities four-quadrant method.
Larger that the dorsal cavity and contains
structures in the chest and abdomen.
Subdivisions:
a. Thoracic Cavity (superior)
- separated from the rest of the ventral
cavity by the diaphragm.
BMED 66: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE MAJOR IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Located in the middle, below the stomach.
Contains the bladder and parts of the


reproductive organs.


inferior to the umbilical region (hypo = below).

9. Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region:


Located on the lower left side, near the groin.

Contains part of the large intestine.


lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac =



superior part of the hip bone)



Other Body Cavities (Smaller Body Cavities)

1. Right Hypochondriac Region:
These are smaller cavities mostly located in the
Located below the rib cartilage on the right.
head and open to the body's exterior.
Contains the liver and gallbladder.


flank the epigastric region and contain the 1. Oral Cavity



lower ribs (chondro = cartilage)  Commonly referred to as the mouth.



2. Epigastric Region:  Contains the teeth and tongue.

Located in the middle, above the stomach.  Continuously connected to the digestive
Contains parts of the stomach, liver, and organs.


pancreas.  Opens to the exterior through the anus.



located superior to the umbilical region (epi = 2. Nasal Cavity

upon, above; gastric = stomach).  Located within and behind the nose.


3. Left Hypochondriac Region:  Part of the respiratory system, it allows air

Located below the rib cartilage on the left. to enter the body.
Contains the spleen and part of the stomach. 3. Orbital Cavities (Orbits)


flank the epigastric region and contain the  Location: Found in the skull.


lower ribs (chondro = cartilage)  Function: These cavities house the eyes and


4. Right Lumbar Region: present them in an anterior (forward-facing)

Located on the right side, near the lower back. position.
Contains parts of the large intestine and kidney.  They also support structures that protect


lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus = and move the eyes, such as muscles and


loins) and spinal column between the bottom nerves.



ribs and the hip bones 4. Middle Ear Cavities

5. Umbilical Region:  Location: Situated medial (toward the
Located in the center, near the belly button. center) to the eardrums and carved into the
Contains the small intestine and part of the skull.


large intestine.  Function: These cavities contain tiny bones



Centermost region, deep to and surrounding the (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
umbilicus (navel) from the eardrum to the hearing receptors in


6. Left Lumbar Region: the inner ear.

Located on the left side, near the lower back.
Contains parts of the large intestine and kidney.


lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus =



loins) and spinal column between the bottom



ribs and the hip bones

7. Right Iliac (Inguinal) Region:
Located on the lower right side, near the groin.
Contains the appendix and part of the large


intestine.


lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac =

superior part of the hip bone)


8. Hypogastric (Pubic) Region: