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Computer fundamentals architecture and organisation
4th Edition B. Ram Digital Instant Download
Author(s): B. Ram
ISBN(s): 9788122424461, 8122424465
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 4.21 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
THIS PAGE
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Copyright © 2007, 2000, 1996 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

All rights reserved.

No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm,
xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval
system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher.
All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected]

ISBN : 978-81-224-2446-1

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

The fourth edition of the book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged. It is suitable
for the first course on computer organization and architecture, which is taught at B.Tech.,
BCA and MCA level. The fourth edition of the book gives the latest information on processors,
peripherals, supporting chips, bus standards and softwares. New topics included in the book
are as mentioned below:
Chapter 1: Centrino Notebooks, Centrino Duo Mobile Technology, middleware, freeware,
multithreading, terminologies of mobile phone standards and data communication, short
range wireless, microprogrammed control unit, virus, MP3 compression standard, MPEG,
PMP, DivX etc.
Chapter 3: Alternative circuits for Mod 3, Mod 5, Mod 6, Mod 10 and Mod 12 counters.
Chapter 5: Intel 8086 instructions, Pentium 4, EPIC and Itanium processors, Athlon
64, Athlon 64 FX, Optiron and Athlon 64 × 2 processors, Transmeta Corporation Crusoe
chips, VIA C3, ARM and Cell processors.
Chapter 6: DDR SDRAM, RDRAM (Rambus RAM), Magneto-resistance, non-volatile
RAM, WPCMCIA etc.
Chapter 7: TFTLCD monitor, OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) displays, MFDs,
Chipsets, GPU (Graphical Processing Unit), etc.
Chaper 8: Optical mouse, SQL, DDL, DCL, DML, WINDOWS-XP, WINDOWS-2000,
WINDOWS-2003, Microsoft Office-XP, FrontPage, etc.
Chapter 9: Corel Draw, Instant Messeging, Groupware, etc.
Chapter 10: USB, IEEE1394, PCI Express etc.
Chapter 11: Pipelining, Array Processors, multiprocessor system, Vector processor;
UMA, SMP and NUMA systems, Cache coherence, snoopy cache scheme, directory-based
scheme, Clusters, distributed memory type multiprocessor system, Flinn’s classification of
computers—SISD, SIMD, MISD and MIMD etc.

Dr. B. RAM

(v)
THIS PAGE
IS BLANK
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to thank Dr. U.S. Triyar, Principal, APEEJAY College of
Engineering, Sohna, Haryana and Prof. A.K. Sahni, Department of Electrical
Engineering, NIT, Patna for their valuable suggestions and encouragement.

Finally, the author wishes to thank M/s New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers,
New Delhi, for bringing out the fourth edition of the book.

Dr. B. RAM

(vii)
THIS PAGE
IS BLANK
 CONTENTS

Preface (v)
Acknowledgement (vii)

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1

1.1 Digital and Analog Computers 1.1

1.2 Evolution of Digital Computers 1.2
1.3 Major Components of a Digital Computer 1.7
1.4 Memory Addressing Capability of a CPU 1.13
1.5 Word Length of a Computer 1.13
1.6 Processing Speed of a Microprocessor 1.14
1.7 Microprocessors 1.14
1.8 Single-Chip Microcomputers (Microcontrollers) 1.17
1.9 Computer Classification 1.18
1.10 User Interface 1.21
1.11 Hardware, Software, Firmware, Middleware and Freeware 1.21
1.12 Batch Processing, Multiprogramming and Multiuser System 1.23
1.13 Multithreading 1.24
1.14 Computer Network 1.24
1.15 Distributed Processing (Computing) or Multiprocessing 1.24
1.16 Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN) 1.25
1.17 Some Terminologies of Mobile Phone Standards
and Data Communication 1.28
1.18 Short Range Wireless 1.30
1.19 Control Flow And Data Flow Computers 1.30
1.20 RISC, CISC and EPIC Processors 1.31
1.21 Computer Applications 1.32
1.22 Impact of Computers on Society 1.33
1.23 Future Developments 1.35
1.24 Virus 1.35

(ix)
 (x)

1.25 MP3 Compression Standard 1.36

1.26 MPEG Compression Standard 1.36
1.27 Personal Media Player PMP 1.36
1.28 Div X 1.36
Problems 1.36

2. NUMBER SYSTEM 2.1

2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Decimal Number System 2.1
2.3 Binary Number (or Base-2) System 2.2
2.4 Conversion of a Binary Number to Decimal Number 2.3
2.5 Conversion of a Decimal Number to a Binary Number 2.4
2.6 Addition of Binary Numbers 2.6
2.7 Binary Subtraction 2.7
2.8 Use of Complements to Represent Negative Numbers 2.8
2.9 Conversion of a Binary Fraction to a Decimal Fraction 2.15
2.10 Conversion of a Decimal Fraction to a Binary Fraction 2.16
2.11 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD Codes) 2.17
2.12 Hexadecimal Number System 2.19
2.13 Octal Number System 2.23
2.14 ASCII and ISCII Codes 2.27
2.15 EBCDIC Code 2.30
2.16 Gray Codes 2.30
2.17 Fixed Point Representation of Numbers 2.33
2.18 Floating-Point Representation 2.34
2.19 Overflow and Underflow 2.39
Problems 2.40

3. DIGITAL DEVICES 3.1

3.1 Logic Gates 3.1

3.2 Flip-Flops 3.8
3.3 Latches 3.17
3.4 Registers 3.17
3.5 Shift Registers 3.17
3.6 Buffers/Drivers 3.18
3.7 Encoders, Decoders and Code Converters 3.18
3.8 Counters 3.19
 (xi)

3.9 Digital Multiplexers/Data Selectors 3.28

3.10 Digital Demultiplexers/Decoders 3.29
Problems 3.30

4. LOGIC DESIGN 4.1

4.1 Boolean Algebra 4.1

4.2 Minimum Boolean Expression 4.23
4.3 Karnaugh Map Method of Simplification of Logic Expression 4.23
4.4 Combinational and Sequential Circuits 4.42
4.5 Arithmetic Circuits 4.43
Problems 4.49

5. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) 5.1

5.1 Introduction 5.1

5.2 CPU Organization 5.1
5.3 Instruction 5.4
5.4 Addressing Modes 5.8
5.5 Interrupts and Exceptions 5.12
5.6 Pin Configuration or Intel 8085 5.13
5.7 Generation of Some Special Control Signals for
Memory and I/O devices 5.15
5.8 Instruction Cycle 5.16
5.9 Instruction and Data Flow 5.17
5.10 Timing Diagram 5.18
5.11 Microprocessors 5.24
5.12 Intel 8085 5.24
5.13 Intel 8086 5.24
5.14 Brief Description of Intel Microprocessors 5.35
5.15 Intel 486 (Intel 80486) 5.37
5.16 Pentium Processor 5.47
5.17 Pentium MMX Processor 5.48
5.18 Pentium PRO 5.48
5.19 Pentium II and Pentium II XEON 5.50
5.20 Celeron Processor 5.50
5.21 Pentium III Processor 5.51
5.22 Pentium 4 Processor 5.52
5.23 Itanium Processor 5.53
 (xii)

5.24 PowerPC Microprocessor 5.54

5.25 MIPS Microprocessors 5.57
5.26 DEC’S Alpha Microprocessors 5.57
5.27 Cyrix Microprocessors 5.57
5.28 AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) Processors 5.58
5.29 Sun’s Ultrasparc Microprocessor 5.58
5.30 National Semiconductors Microprocessors 5.58
5.31 Motorola Microprocessors 5.58
5.32 Transmeta Corporation’s Crusoe Chips 5.59
5.33 VIA’s C3 Processor 5.60
5.34 ARM Microprocessors 5.60
5.35 Cell Processors 5.60
5.36 RISC, CISC and EPIC Machines 5.60
Problems 5.61

6. MEMORY 6.1

6.1 Main Memory, Secondary Memory and Backup Memory 6.1

6.2 Cache Memory 6.2
6.3 Real (or Physical) and Virtual Memory 6.4
6.4 Semiconductor Memory 6.5
6.5 Memory Controllers 6.9
6.6 Magnetic Memory 6.11
6.7 Optical Disks 6.21
6.8 CCD (Charge Coupled Devices) 6.25
6.9 Direct Access Storage Devices (DASDs) 6.26
6.10 Destructive and Nondestructive Readout 6.26
6.11 Program and Data Memory 6.26
6.12 Memory Management Unit (MMU) 6.26
6.13 PCMCIA or WPCMCIA Cards and Slots 6.29
Problems 6.29

7. I/O DEVICES, MICROCONTROLLERS, I/O

PROCESSORS AND ARITHMETIC PROCESSORS 7.1

7.1 Input Devices 7.1

7.2 Output Devices 7.11
7.3 Printers 7.19
7.4 Plotters 7.24
 (xiii)

7.5 Other Forms of Output Devices 7.25

7.6 Input and Output Port 7.25
7.7 Serial Data Transfer 7.28
7.8 Programmable Interval Timer/Counter 7.33
7.9 Chipsets 7.34
7.10 Data Transfer Schemes 7.34
7.11 Single-Chip Microcomputers (Microcontrollers) and
Embedded Microprocessors 7.45
7.12 DSP (Digital Signal Processor) 7.47
7.13 I/O Processor 7.47
7.14 Arithmetic Processors 7.49
7.15 Graphics Processors 7.51
Problems 7.51

8. SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES 8.1

8.1 Machine Language 8.2

8.2 Assembly Language 8.2
8.3 Low-Level and High-Level Languages 8.3
8.4 Stack 8.8
8.5 Subroutines 8.9
8.6 Debugging of Programs 8.11
8.7 Macro 8.12
8.8 Macro Processor (or Keyboard Enhancer) 8.13
8.9 Program Design 8.14
8.10 Software Development 8.18
8.11 Flow Charts 8.20
8.12 Multiprogramming or Concurrent Programming 8.22
8.13 Multiuser or Time-Share System 8.23
8.14 Multitasking System 8.23
8.15 Protection 8.24
8.16 Problems in Accessing Resources 8.24
8.17 Operating System 8.25
8.18 Utility Programs 8.31
8.19 Application Packages 8.32
8.20 BIOS 8.45
Problems 8.46
 (xiv)

9. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS 9.1

9.1 Computer Applications in Offices 9.1

9.2 Use of Computers in Books Publication 9.2
9.3 Desktop Publishing System 9.3
9.4 Application of Computers for Data Analysis 9.4
9.5 Accounting, Investment, Inventory Control etc. 9.4
9.6 Application of Computers in Graphics 9.5
9.7 CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) 9.8
9.8 Application of Computers in Database Management 9.8
9.9 Application of Computers in Project Management 9.9
9.10 Use of Computers in Communications 9.10
9.11 Application of Computers in Education 9.14
9.12 Application of Computers in Medical Field 9.15
9.13 Application of Computers in Industrial
Control and Instrumentation 9.16
9.14 Airlines and Railways Ticket Reservation 9.17
9.15 Robots 9.18
9.16 Artificial Intelligence 9.18
9.17 Military Application of Computers 9.20
9.18 Application of Computers in Banks 9.20
9.19 Application of Computers in Design and Research Work 9.20
9.20 Real-Time or Online Applications 9.21
9.21 Point of Sale (POS) Terminals 9.21
9.22 Financial Transaction Terminals 9.22
9.23 Some Other Application of Computers 9.22
9.24 Computers with Visions 9.23
Problems 9.25

10. BUS ARCHITECTURE 10.1

10.1 Introduction 10.1

10.2 ISA BUS 10.1
10.3 EISA BUS 10.2
10.4 PCI Bus 10.3
10.5 AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) 10.3
10.6 PCI Express Bus 10.3
10.7 Universal Serial Bus (USB) 10.5
10.8 IEEE 1394 10.5
 (xv)

10.9 IEEE-1284 10.6

10.10 IEEE-488 BUS 10.6
10.11 Bus System in a Multiprocessor System 10.6
Problems 10.9

11. PARALLEL PROCESSING 11.1

11.1 Introduction 11.1

11.2 Pipelined Processors 11.1
11.3 Array Processors 11.3
11.4 Vector Processors 11.4
11.5 Multiprocessor system 11.4
11.6 Flinn’s Classification of Computers 11.11
Problems 11.11
Appendix A-1
Bibliography B-1
Index I-1
THIS PAGE
IS BLANK
 1
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Computer is the most powerful tool man has ever created. Computers have made a great
impact on our everyday life. Their presence is felt at almost every working place, viz. homes,
schools, colleges, offices, industries, hospitals, banks, retail stores, railways, research and
design organizations and so on. Computers, large and small, are used nowadays by all kinds
of people for a variety of tasks in a modern and industrialized society.
A computer is basically a programmable computing machine. Earlier, computers were
used for complex computations and used by only scientists and engineers. The trend was to
design large and powerful computers to handle large data and solve complex problems. They
were very costly and hence, only large organizations could afford them. The technological
breakthrough in design and fabrication of semiconductor devices has made now possible to
manufacture powerful microcomputers which are within the reach of small organizations and
even individuals. These computers being very fast can be used not only for computation but
also to store and retrieve information, to control certain processes and machines, to measure
and display certain physical and electrical quantities and so forth. Developments in software
allow massive applications of computers for non-computational jobs like text preparation,
manipulation, storage and retrieval; transmission of texts, graphics and pictures from one
place to another; and artificial intelligence and expert systems, for example, robots, and so on.

1.1 DIGITAL AND ANALOG COMPUTERS

Computers which are in use today are digital computers. They manipulate numbers.
They operate on binary digits 0 and 1. They understand information composed of only 0s and
1s. In the case of alphabetic information, the alphabets are coded in binary digits. A binary
digit is called bit. A group of 8 bits is called a byte. Computers do not operate on analog
quantities directly. If any analog quantity is to be processed, it must be converted into digital
quantity before processing. The output of a computer is also digital. If analog output is
needed, the digital output has to be converted into analog quantity. If output is to be displayed
in the form of text, the digital output is converted to alphabets. The components which
convert alphanumeric characters to binary format and binary output to alphanumeric characters
are the essential parts of a digital computer. But the electronic components which convert
1.1
1.2 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

analog quantity to digital quantity or digital quantity to analog quantity are connected to a
digital computer as peripherals where needed. Processing of analog quantity is usually
encountered in industrial control and instrumentation, not in general purpose computation,
text manipulation or information storage, retrieval or transmission.
The computer which can process analog quantities is called an analog computer. Today,
analog computers are rarely used. Earlier, analog computers were used to simulate certain
systems. They were used to solve differential equations.

1.2 EVOLUTION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Electronic computers using valves appeared in 1940s. The successful general purpose
mechanical computers were developed in 1930s. Before 1930 mechanical calculators were
built for automatic addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. A calculator is not a
programmable device. Calculations are performed using step-by-step technique. The user does
not prepare program for his calculation. A computer is a programmable machine. A program
is to be prepared to solve a problem.
1.2.1 The Mechanical Era
The first mechanical calculator was developed in 1623 by Wilhelm Schickhard, a professor
at the University of Tubingen. His machine did not become popular. A popular mechanical
calculator was developed in 1642 by the great French philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal.
His machine was capable of performing addition and subtraction automatically. For this the
machine employed counter wheels. There were two sets of six dials or counter wheels to
represent decimal numbers. The calculator contained a mechanism for automatic transfer of
carry while performing the sum of two numbers. The numbers were represented by the
positions of the counter wheels. Around 1671 Pascal’s machine was extended to perform
multiplication and division automatically by German philosopher and scientist Gottfried Leibniz.
This machine consisted of two parts: one part to perform addition and subtraction and the
other part to perform multiplication and division. The part which performed addition and
subtraction was similar to the calculating box of Pascal. It further included two additional sets
of wheels to represent multiplier and multiplicand. Chains and pulleys were used to implement
multiplication.
In 1823, Charles Babbage tried to build a mechanical computing machine capable of
performing automatic multistep calculations. He named his machine a difference engine.
This was designed to compute tables of functions such as logarithms and trigonometric
functions. A polynomial was used to represent a function. The method of finite differences
was used to evaluate a function. He could not complete the machine. Swede George Scheutz
successfully built a difference engine which could handle third-degree polynomials and
15-digit numbers.
In 1830s Charles Babbage conceived of a much more powerful mechanical computer. He
called this machine an analytical engine. This machine was designed to perform any
mathematical calculation automatically. It contained all the essential components of a modern
digital computer, namely:
(i) A processor capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
He called it a ‘mill’.
INTRODUCTION 1.3

(ii) A memory unit. It was constructed from decimal counting wheels. Its capacity was

CHAPTER 1
1000 numbers, each number consisting of 50 digits.
(iii) Several I/O devices such as a card punch, a punch-card reader and a printer.
The analytical machine was a programmable machine. It had a mechanism for enabling
a program to change the sequence of its operations automatically. In other words there were
conditional branches of instructions in the program. The condition was based on the sign of
a number. One sequence of operations was to be performed if the sign were positive, and
another one, if negative. Babbage’s analytical machine was also not completed.
In the late nineteenth century punched cards were commercially used. Herman Hollerith
was the inventor of punched-card tabulating machine. The major application of his machine
came about in the 1890 United States Census. In 1896 he formed the Tabulating Machine
Company to manufacture his machines. In 1911 his company was merged with several others
to form the Computing-Tabulating Recording Company. This very company was renamed as
the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1924.
Successful general purpose mechanical computers were built in 1930s. Konard Zuse
developed a mechanical computer, the Z1, in 1938 in Germany. The Z1 used binary number
system instead of decimal system. Konard was unaware of Babbage’s work. He built several
small mechanical computers. The Z3 was completed in 1941. It is believed to be the first
operational general purpose computer. The Z3 employed relays (electromechanical binary
switches) to construct arithmetic unit. The machine used floating-point number representation.
Howard Aiken, a professor of Physics at Harvard University, designed a general purpose
mechanical digital computer. This machine was called an Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator and later as Harvard Mark I. It was constructed in cooperation with IBM, a leading
manufacturer of office equipment at that time. Aiken was aware of Babbage’s work. He used
decimal counters wheels for its main memory. Its memory capacity was seventy two 23-digit
decimal numbers. Punched paper tape was used to program and control the machine. Mark
I started working in 1944. Later, Mark II was built by Aiken and his colleagues. Mark II
employed electromechanical relays for its operation. Many computers using electromechanical
relays were built in the 1940s. But they were quickly superseded by faster and more reliable
electronic computers.
1.2.2 The Electronic Era
The first electronic computer using valves was developed by John V. Atanasoff in the
late 1930s at Iowa State University. It contained an add-subtract unit. It was relatively a
small computer and used about 300 valves. Its memory unit consisted of capacitors mounted
on a rotating drum. It used binary numbers for its operation. Each capacitor was capable of
storing one binary digit. It used a number of input/output (I/O) devices including a card punch
and a card reader. It was completed in 1942. It was a special purpose computer to solve
simultaneous equations. Several other electronic computers using valves were successfully
constructed in the early 1940s. Some important computers were the series of computers
called Colossus developed in England.
The first popular general purpose electronic digital computer was the ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator). It was developed at the University of Pennsylvania
under the guidance of John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert. John von Neumann was the
consultant of the ENIAC project. It was a very large machine weighing about 30 tons and
containing about 18000 vacuum tubes. It took 200 microseconds for addition and 3 milliseconds
1.4 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

to perform a 10-digit multiplication. It used decimal numbers for its operation rather than
binary numbers. Its working memory was composed of 20 electronic accumulators. Each
accumulator was capable of storing a signed 10-digit decimal number. A decimal digit was
stored in a ring counter consisting of 10 vacuum-tube flip-flops connected in a closed loop.
Like Analytical Engine and Mark I, in ENIAC also programs and data were stored in separate
memories. Introducing a new program or modifying a program was an extremely tedious job
with separate memories for program and data.
The ENIAC designers, most notably John von Neumann, gave an idea to use a high-
speed memory to store both program as well as data during program execution. This idea is
known as stored program concept and was first published by Neumann for a new computer
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) in 1945. This machine started
operation in 1951. It used binary rather than decimal numbers for its operation. It used serial
binary-logic circuits. It used a larger main memory (mercury-delay line) 1 K words and a slow
secondary memory (magnetic wire memory) 20 K words (where K stands for Kilo which is
equal to 1024 to be exact). Access to the main memory was bit by bit, i.e., serial.
Neumann and his colleagues designed and built a new computer called IAS (Institute of
Advanced Studies) at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton during 1946-1952. This
machine had the features of a modern computer. It used random access main memory
consisting of cathode-ray-tube. An entire word could be accessed in one operation. It used
parallel binary circuits. The CPU contained several high-speed (vacuum tube) registers to
store operands and results. This computer served as the prototype for most subsequent
general purpose computers. The basic logical structure proposed by Neumann is still used in
a standard computer. The term Neumann Computer became synonymous with standard
computer architecture. A standard architecture includes a CPU, memory and input/output
devices. In future the architecture may change; instead of a centralized processing, distributed
processing may be used with corresponding other changes in the design and architecture.
The transistor was invented in 1948 at AT & T Bell Laboratories. In the 1950s the
engineers started using transistors in place of vacuum tubes to construct computers. One of
the earliest computers using transistors was TX-O. It was an experimental computer built at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratories. It started operation in
1953. Commercial computers using transistors were constructed in the late 1950s and early
1960s by many companies. For example, IBM introduced a large computer, the 7090, for
scientific applications. It was a transistorized version of the IBM 709, a vacuum-tube computer.
The transistorized computers used transistors as the components of CPU. These computers
used ferrite core main memory and magnetic disk, drum and tapes as secondary memory.
Ferrite core memories consist of tiny rings (cores) of magnetic material called ferrite. Each
ferrite core stores a single bit of information. Transistorized computers were faster and
compact, and consumed much less power compared to vacuum tube computers.
Integrated Circuits (ICs) were first designed and fabricated in 1958-1959 by Jack S. Kilby
at Texas Instruments, and by Robert S. Noyce at Fairchild independently. The first commercial
IC was introduced in 1961 by Fairchild. ICs began to replace transistor circuits since 1965.
The examples of computers using ICs are IBM 370 and PDP-8. By 1970 all new computers
used ICs, SSI and MSI as CPU components and LSI for main memory. SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI
and ULSI are the classification of ICs based on components density. SSI contains components,
usually transistors, 1 to 100, MSI 100 to 1000, LSI 1000 to 10,000, VLSI more than 10,000
and ULSI millions.
INTRODUCTION 1.5

The first LSI chips were introduced in 1970 in the form of computer memory units. With

CHAPTER 1
the advent of LSI and VLSI chips it became possible to fabricate the whole CPU unit on a
single chip called microprocessor. The first microprocessor, the 4004 was introduced in 1971
by Intel Corporation. The first single-chip microcomputer TMS 1000, a 4-bit microcontroller,
was developed by Texas Instruments in the year 1974. An 8-bit microcontroller, the 8048 was
introduced in 1976 by Intel. Computers built in 1970s and onwards used microprocessors and
other LSI, VLSI and ULSI components.
Computer Generations
First Generation (1946-1954). The digital computers using electronic valves (vacuum
tubes) are known as first-generation computers. Some examples of the first-generation
computers are: IBM 700 series-IBM 701, IBM 704, IBM 709, EDVAC and UNIVAC. The first-
generation computers usually used vacuum tubes as CPU components. The high cost of
vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. So less costly but slower devices such
as acoustic delay lines were used for memory. They stored information in the form of
propagating sound waves. Electrostatic memories have also been used in the first generation
computers. Magnetic tape and magnetic drums were used as secondary memory. A first
generation computer, Whirlwind I, constructed at MIT was the first computer to use ferrite
core memory. The first generation computers used machine language and assembly language
for programming. They used fixed-point arithmetic. Punched cards and paper tapes were
developed to feed programs and data and to get results. Punched card and paper tape readers
and printers were in use.
Second Generation (1955-1964). The second-generation computers used transistors for
CPU components and ferrite cores for main memory, and magnetic disks and tapes for
secondary memory. They used high-level languages such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL
(1960) and COBOL (1960) for programming. Floating-point arithmetic hardware was widely
used. I/O processor was included to control input/output operations. It relieved CPU from
many time-consuming routine tasks. Examples of second generation computers are: IBM
1620 (1960), IBM 7090 (1960), IBM 7094I (1962), 7094II (1964); Control Data Corporation’s
CDC 1604; and Digital Data Corporation’s PDP 1 (1957), PDP 5 (1963) and PDP 8 (1965).
PDP (Programmed Data Processor) series is a series of minicomputers. PDP 8 was a 12-
bit minicomputer. Its earlier units used transistors; IC version was introduced in 1967.
Punched cards and paper tapes and their readers were used as I/O devices. Printers were
in use.
Third Generation (1965-1974). The third-generation computers used ICs (SSI and MSI)
for CPU components. In the beginning third generation computers used magnetic core memory,
but later on semiconductor memories (RAMs and ROMs) were used. Semiconductor memories
were LSI chips. Magnetic disks, and tapes were used as secondary memories. Cache memory
was also incorporated in the computers of third generation. Microprogramming, parallel
processing (pipelining, multiprocessor system, etc.), multiprocessing, multiprogramming,
multiuser system (time-share system), etc. were introduced. The concept of virtual memory
was also introduced. The examples of third generation computers are: IBM/370 series (1970),
CDC 7600 (1969), PDP 11 (16-bit minicomputer, 1970), CDC’s CYBER-175 and STAR-100, etc.
I/O devices were punched cards, magnetic tapes and printers.
Fourth Generation (1975-1990). In the fourth-generation computers microprocessors
were used as CPU. VLSI chips were used for CPU, memory and supporting chips. The
electronic circuitry of up to 1.2 million transistors were placed on a single silicon chip.
1.6 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Computers of earlier generation used separate ICs for cache memory, FPU (Floating-Point
Unit i.e., Match Processor), MMU (Memory Management Unit) etc. Now microprocessor chips
contained all such units besides CPU on a single chip. They were packed in a single IC.
Multifunctional peripheral chips were available. They contained interrupt controller, DMA
controller, timer-counters, bus controller etc. in a single IC. These are essential components
required for a computer. Computer of this generation were very fast. They performed internal
operations in microseconds. 8, 16 and 32-bit microprocessors were developed during this period.
Main memory used fast semiconductor chips up to 4 Mbits size. Hard disks were used
as secondary memory. Hard disk drives of hundreds of megabytes were available. Floppy
disks and magnetic tapes were used as backup memory. Keyboard, CRT display (monitor), dot-
matrix printers etc. were used as peripherals. Inkjet, laser and line printers, were developed
during this period. PCs (Personal Computers) were available. Such computers can be easily
placed on a desk and hence, they were also known as desk computers. They were single-user
computers. During this period computers were within the reach of small organization,
institutions, professionals and individuals. The desktop computers were more powerful than
the mainframe computers of 1970s. Computers became very powerful and small in size.
During this period computer network: LANs and WANs were also developed. Operating
systems MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh etc. were available. Apple’s Macintosh with GUI
(Graphical User Interface) was developed. Object-oriented language C++ was developed. Single-
chip microcomputers (microcontrollers) were available. They were widely used in industrial
control, instrumentation, commercial appliances etc. Software packages for word processing,
spread-sheet, database management etc. were developed. Examples of fourth-generation
computers were: Intel’s 8088, 80286, 80386 and 80486 based computers; Motorola’s 6800,
68020, 68030 and 68040 based computers, IBM 3090, VAX 9000, Supercomputers-Cray-1, Cray-
2, Cray X-MP, Cray Y-MP, Hitachi 828/80 etc.
Fifth-Generation (1991-Continued). Fifth-generation computer use ULSI (Ultra-Large
Scale Integration) chips. Millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips. Intel’s
Pentium 4 Prescott contains 160 million transistors and Itanium 2 processor contains more
than 400 million transistors. 64-bit microprocessors have been developed during this period.
Data flow and EPIC architectures of processors have been developed. Intel’s processors
Pentium Pro onwards use data flow architecture and Itanium uses EPIC architecture. Von
Neumann architecture are still used in less powerful CPUs. RISC and CISC both types of
design are used in modern processors. Intel’s up to Pentium 4 and AMD’s processors use CISC
design. SUN, MIPS, HP etc. use RISC design for their processors. 32-bit microcontrollers
(Single-Chip Microcomputers) have been developed for industrial and commercial application.
Nowadays multimedia computers are becoming common. A multimedia computer can accept
text, sound and/or image as input and give output in the form of text, sound and/or images.
They can handle animation. Computers using artifical intelligence (expert systems) are now
available. Robots have been developed. They can work in environment where human beings
can not do. Powerful handheld and notebook computers are now available. Fifth-generation
computers use extensive parallel processing, multiple pipelines, multiple processors etc.
Memory chips and flash memory up to 1Gbits, hard disk drives up to 600 Gbytes and
optical disks up to 50 GB have been developed. Inkjet and laser printers are commonly used.
In some applications dot-matrix printers are still used. Computers with vision have been
developed. Internet is becoming popular and people are getting all kinds of information from
distant places using Internet. Video conferencing is also in use. Object-oriented language Java
for Internet programming is widely used. Heterogeneous computers are connected to Internet.
INTRODUCTION 1.7

Heterogeneous computers mean computers of different make and having different operating

CHAPTER 1
systems. Programs written in Java for one computer can run on any other computer. It
means that Java is quite suitable for Internet programming for heterogeneous computers.
Operating systems available today are : WINDOWS-95, 98, XP, 2000, 2003; Apple’s Mac OS-
8, 9, 10 and X; SUN’s Solaris, LINUX etc. All OS now include GUI. Examples of processors
are: Intel’s Pentium to Pentium 4, Itanium; Motorola’s Power PC, MIPS, Compaq’s Alpha,
SUN’s Ultra SPARC III, AMD’s Athlon, Athlon 64, ARM processors, Cell processors etc.
Internal processing time is now in nanoseconds.
Superscalar processors, vector processors, DSP (Digital Signal Processor), symbolic
processors, SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) processors, multicore processors, expert
systems employing artificial intelligence, etc. have been developed. Supercomputers available
today are IBM’s BlueGene/L DD2 Beta-system having speed of 70.7 TFLOPS, Columbia
(NASA) having speed of 51.9 TFLOPS, Earth simulator (NEC) having speed of 40 TFLOPS etc.

1.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER

The major components of a digital computer are: CPU (central processing unit), memory,
input device and output device. The input and output devices are also known as peripherals.
Fig. 1.1 shows a schematic diagram of a digital computer.

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of a digital computer.

1.3.1 CPU
The CPU is the brain of a computer. Its primary function is to execute programs. Besides
executing programs, the CPU also controls the operation of all other components such as
memory, input and output devices. Under its control, programs and data are stored in the
memory and displayed on the CRT screen or printed by the printer.
The CPU of a small computer is a microprocessor. Fig. 1.2 shows the schematic diagram
of a microcomputer. The CPU of a large computer contains a number of microprocessors and
other ICs on one or more circuit boards. Each microprocessor in a large CPU performs a
specific task.
Fig. 1.3 shows the schematic diagram of a CPU or microprocessor. The major sections
of a CPU are:
(i) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The function of an ALU is to perform arithmetic and logic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division; AND, OR, NOT (complement) and EXCLUSIVE-OR
operations. It also performs increment, decrement, shift and clear operations.
1.8 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram of a microcomputer.

Fig. 1.3 Schematic diagram of a CPU or microprocessor

(ii) Timing and Control Unit

The timing and control unit generates timing and control signals necessary for the
execution of instructions. It provides status, control and timing signals necessary for the
operation of other parts of the CPU, memory and I/O devices. It controls the entire operation
of a computer. It is actually the control section of the CPU, which acts as the brain of a
computer.
(iii) Accumulator, General and Special Purpose Registers
The accumulator is a register which holds one of the operands prior to the execution of
an instruction and services result of the most arithmetic and logical operations. It is the most
frequently used register. Some CPUs contain a single accumulator, and some contain several
accumulators. General purpose registers store data and intermediate results during the
execution of a program. They are accessible to programmers through instructions if they are
working in an assembly language. Special purpose registers are not accessible to users. They
are used by the computer for different purposes during program execution. Examples of
special purpose registers are: program counter, stack pointer, index registers, instruction
register, etc.

1.3.2 Memory
The function of the memory is to store information. It stores program, data, results or
any other kind of information. Two or three levels of memories such as main memory,
secondary memory and cache memory are provided in a digital computer. The main memory
(or primary memory) is a fast memory. It stores programs along with data, which are to be
INTRODUCTION 1.9

executed. It also stores necessary programs of the system software, which are required to

CHAPTER 1
execute the user’s program. The main memory is directly addressed by the CPU. Semiconductor
memories, RAMs are used as main memory. It possesses random access property, and has
smaller access time, about 50 ns (nanosecond). Secondary (or auxiliary) memory stores operating
system, data files, compilers, assemblers, application programs, etc. The CPU does not read
information (residing in the secondary memory) directly from the secondary memory. The
programs and data (residing in secondary memory), if needed by CPU, are first transferred
from the secondary memory to the primary memory. Then the CPU reads them from the
primary memory. The results are also stored in the secondary memory. The secondary
memory is a mass storage memory. It is slow but cheap. It is a permanent memory while
the main memory (RAM) is volatile memory. The capacity of the main memory is comparatively
much smaller than that of the secondary because of its high cost. Hard disks are used as
secondary memory. Their access time is about 5-10 ms (millisecond).
The cache memory is placed in between the CPU and the main memory. It is much faster
than the main memory; access time about 10 ns. It stores instructions and data which are
to be immediately executed. It is much costlier than the main memory. Hence, from cost
consideration its capacity is kept much less than that of the main memory.
Destructive and Nondestructive Readout
In some memories the process of reading the memory destroys the stored information.
This property is called destructive readout (DRO). Example of a memory having DRO
characteristic is a dynamic RAM. In some memories the process of reading information does
not destroy the stored information. This characteristic of the memory is called nondestructive
read-out (NDRO). Examples of memories having NDRO features are static RAM, hard disks,
floppy disks, magnetic tapes, etc.
Real (or Physical) and Virtual Memory
The real or physical memory is the actual main memory available in a computer system.
It is directly addressed by the CPU.
The technique which allows a program to use main memory more than a computer
really has is called virtual memory technique. For example, the 80386 microprocessor can
have the maximum physical memory capacity 4 gigabytes (GB) but its virtual memory capacity
is much larger, 64 terabytes (TB) [see details in Chapter 6].
Direct Access Storage Devices (DASD), On-Line and Off-Line Memory Devices
While processing data it is often required to access any record at any time. It may be
desired to access a single record, update it and put it back in its original place. This type
of data processing is called direct processing or random processing. It needs locating,
retrieving and updating any record stored in a file without reading the preceding or succeeding
records in the file. These requirements can be fulfilled with direct access storage devices
(DASD equipment). DASD includes hard disks, floppy disks and several forms of optical
disks.
Memory devices which always remain connected to a computer system are called on-line
devices. Hard disks are on-line secondary memory. The devices that can be connected to the
system when needed are known as off-line memory. Magnetic tape is an example of off-line
memory.
1.10 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Memory Management
In a multiuser, multitasking or multiprogramming system, memory must be specifically
managed to a handle multiple programs. The physical size of the main memory is usually not
large enough to accommodate the operating system and all of the application programs which
are needed to execute the programs of various users. In a multiuser system users should not
interfere with one another, and also they should not interfere with the operating system. This
is achieved by providing suitable memory management scheme. Memory management can be
provided totally by the operating system or with the help of hardware called MMU (memory
management unit).
In a uniprogramming system, the main memory is partitioned into two portions: one
portion for the operating system and the other portion for the program currently being
executed. In a multiprogramming system the user’s portion of the memory must be further
subdivided to accommodate multiple tasks. The task of subdivision is done dynamically by the
memory management scheme. Modern MMUs provide virtual memory to handle large program
or a large number of programs. This is achieved by using swapping technique.
Memory Devices. There are three types of memories from technology point of view:
semiconductor, magnetic and optical memory. Semiconductor memory is static, faster, lighter,
smaller in size and consumes less power. It is used as main memory of a computer. Magnetic
memory is slower but cheaper than semiconductor memory. It is used as secondary and back
up memory of a computer for mass storage of information. RAMs, ROMs, EPROMs, flash
memory etc. are semiconductor memories, and hard disks, floppy disks and magnetic tapes
are magnetic memories. Optical disks and tapes are used as mass storage and back up
memory.
Semiconductor Memory
Semiconductor memories are of two types: RAM (random access memory) and ROM (read
only memory). RAM is a read/write memory. Information can be written into and read from
a RAM. It is s volatile memory. It stores information so long as power supply is on. When
power supply goes off or interrupted the stored information in the RAM is lost. ROM is a
permanent type memory. Its contents are not lost when power supply goes off. The user
cannot write into a ROM. Its contents are decided by the manufacturer and written at the
time of manufacture. RAMs up to 1 Gbits capacity are available. ROMs store permanent
programs and other types of information which are needed by the computer to execute user’s
programs.
Programmable ROMs are also available. They are called PROMs. Further, different types
of PROMs such as erasable PROM called EPROM, electrically erasable PROM called E2
PROM are available. User can write permanent information in PROMs. Such information is
required while executing user’s programs. Flash memory which is electrically erasable and
programmable, is available. It is similar to EEPROM, but has higher packing density, lower
cost and greater reliability.
Magnetic Memory
Magnetic memories are nonvolatile memory. They store information permanently. They
are slower than semiconductor memory. The commonly used magnetic memories are of three
types: hard disks, floppy disks and tapes. These devices are bulk storage devices. They are
used to store information at a lower cost compared to semiconductor devices. These are not
static devices. They are rotated while reading or writing information.
INTRODUCTION 1.11

Floppy Disks. These are thin circular plastic disks coated with magnetic material (iron

CHAPTER 1
oxide or barium ferrite) on the surface. They are used as backup memory. The capacity of
a 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 MB. The use of floppy disks is diminishing day by day. Now people
prefer to use optical disks. Floppy disks are cheaper than optical disks.
Hard Disks. Hard disks are made of aluminium or other metal or metal alloy which
are coated on both sides with magnetic material usually iron oxide. Unlike floppy disks,
hard disks are not removable from the computer. To increase the storing capacity several
disks are packed together and mounted on a common drive to form a disk pack. A disk
is also called platter. The disks unit packed in a sealed container is called Winchester disk
drive. As the sealed containers are dust-free, they allow very high speed, usually 7200 rpm-
15,000 rpm. A hard disk is more stable as it is rigid and contained in dust-free environment.
Its track and bit densities are much higher than those of floppy disks. A hard disk may have
more than 10,000 tracks per surface and bit density 15,000 bits per inch of a track. The data
transfer rate is 33.3-700 MB/sec. The average access time is about 5-10 ms. The reliability
of data is 1 in 1011 which is much better than that of floppy disk, that is 1 in 108–1010. Hard
disks come in 2.5 inch and 3.5 inch diameter. The storing capacity per disk is upto 133 GB.
The capacity of hard disk drive unit is upto 600 GB. A hard disk unit contains more than
one platter.
Hard disk controllers are used to interface hard disks to a processor. An example of hard
disk controller is Intel 82064. There are two types of hard disk controllers: IDE (Integrated
Drive Electronics) and SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). SCSI are intelligent controller
and they connect a number of I/O devices such as hard disks, floppy disks, tape drive, optical
disks, printers, scanners etc. It is costlier than IDE controller. Actually, SCSI and IDE are not
controllers; they are adapters. But people call them controllers. SATA (Serial ATA Interface)
is now available for hard disk drives. Its data transfer rate is 3GB/s.
Magnetic Tape. Magnetic tape is a mass storage device. It is used as back up storage.
It is serial access type storage device. Its main disadvantage is that it stores information
sequentially. It is made up of plastic material. Standard sizes are 1/2 inch, 1/4 inch, 8 mm
and 3 mm wide. Earlier, tapes used 9 tracks to store a byte with parity bit. Today tapes use
18 or 36 tracks to store a word or double word with parity bits. Newer tape is packed in
cassette form which is called cartridge tape. The storing capacity is 2 GB-800 GB of compressed
data. The data density of 18-track tape is about 40,000 characters per inch.
Optical Memory. Information is written to or read from an optical disk or tape using
laser beam. Optical memory is used as archival and backup memory. Optical disks are not
suitable for secondary memory because their access time is more than that of hard disks.
Their advantage is that they have very high storage capacity. Types of optical memory are:
CD-ROM, CD-R (CD Recordable), CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. CD-ROM is also
called compact disk ROM. Information on CD-ROM is written at the time of manufacture. It
is a read-only type memory. Disk size is 5.25 inch diameter. 650MB CD-ROMs are available.
Their access time is 80 ms. Data transfer rate is 4800KB/s. A typical value of track density
is 16000 tracks per inch.
CD-R/W (Read/Write) of 700 MB capacity are now available.
A DVD-ROM is similar to CD-ROM. It uses shorter wavelength of laser beam and hence,
stores much more data than CD-ROM. DVD-ROMs of capacity 4.7 GB to 50 GB are now
available.
1.12 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

1.3.3 Input Devices

Information is entered into a computer through input devices. An input device converts
input information into suitable binary form acceptable to a computer. The commonly used
input device is a keyboard. Several input devices which do not require typing of input
information have been developed, for example, mouse, joystick, light pen, graphic tablet,
touch screen and trackballs. Each of these allows users to select one of the items or
images displayed on the screen. Therefore, these devices are called pointing devices. The
required input is fed to the computer when control button is pressed. In industrial control
electrical signals representing physical or electrical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, force, current, voltage, frequency, etc. are entered a computer for their
measurement and control. The sensors, transducers and data acquisition system act as
input devices. Nowadays voice input systems have also been developed. A microphone is
used as an input device. In many applications, computers with vision are required, for
example, robots, computer-based security system, etc. The input systems for this type of
computers use optical system, semiconductor devices sensitive to light, devices based on
ultrasonic waves, etc. Such input devices produce digital signals corresponding to images,
pictures etc. A multimedia computer accepts input in the form of text, images, graphics
and voice.
1.3.4 Output Devices
The output devices receive results and other information from the computer and provide
them to users. The computer sends information to an output device in the binary form. An
output device converts it into a suitable form convenient to users such as printed form,
display on a screen, voice output, etc. In some applications the computer’s output may also
be converted by an output unit in the form which can be used as an input to other devices,
equipment, machines, etc. This is particularly true in industrial applications. The commonly
used output devices are CRT screen and printers. Other output devices are LEDs (light
emitting diodes), LCDs (liquid crystal displays), plasma displays, plotters, microfilm, microfiche,
speaker or telephone system, etc.
The display screen is also called monitor or CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display. Two types
of display units are available: monochrome and colour monitor. Monochrome monitor displays
texts in a single colour: blue, white, yellow or amber. A colour monitor displays text or
graphics in multicolour. It may be desired in art/graphics applications. For graphics display,
screens of higher resolutions are required. To provide higher resolution, screens contain
more number of pixels to display text or images.
1.3.5 Buses
Memory and I/O devices are connected to the CPU through a group of lines called a
bus. These lines are meant to carry information. There are three types of buses: address
bus, data bus and control bus. An address bus carries the address of a memory location or
an I/O device that the CPU wants to access. The address bus is unidirectional. The data
and control buses are bidirectional because the data can flow in either direction; from CPU
to memory, (or I/O device) or from memory (or I/O device) to the CPU. Examples of control
signals are: RD, WR, ALE, etc. Fig. 1.4 shows the schematic diagram of I/O or memory
connection to CPU.
INTRODUCTION 1.13

CHAPTER 1
Fig. 1.4 I/O or Memory Connection to CPU.
Different types of bus architectures such as ISA, PCI, AGP, USB etc. have been described
in Chapter 10.

1.4 MEMORY ADDRESSING CAPABILITY OF A CPU

The memory addressing capability of a CPU depends on the number of lines available
in an address bus, that is, width of the address bus. With n-bit wide address bus a CPU can
directly address up to 2n memory locations. For example, a CPU with 20 bit wide address bus
will address 220 memory locations directly. 220 = 1 million. One memory location stores one
byte of information and hence a CPU with 20-bit address bus will directly address up to 1 MB
memory, with 16-bit address bus 64 KB memory, with 24-bit address bus 16 MB memory and
with 32-bit address bus 4 GB memory.
It can be very easily shown that with n address lines, 2n memory locations can be
addressed. First take a simple case of only 2 lines. A line carries either 0 or 1 binary digit.
Using two lines only, possible memory addresses are: 00, 01, 10 and 11. These are 22 = 4. If
there are 3 lines, the possible addresses will be 000,001, 010, 011, ..... 111 which are 23 = 8.
Similarly, with four address lines possible addresses are: 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, ....,
1111 which come out to be 24 = 16. Similarly, with n address lines up to 2n memory locations
can be addressed.

1.5 WORD LENGTH OF A COMPUTER

A digital computer operates on binary digits, 0 and 1. It can understand information

only in terms of 0s and 1s. As already mentioned a binary digit is called a bit. The word
bit is the short form of binary digit. A group of 8 bits is called a byte. The number of bits
that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called its word length. The commonly
used word lengths are: 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits. It is a measure of the computing power of a
computer. Computer with longer word length are more powerful. When we talk of a
32-bit computer, it means that its word length is 32 bits. Similarly when we say 8-bit,
16-bit or 32-bit microprocessor, 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit indicates the word length of the
microprocessor.
1.14 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

1.6 PROCESSING SPEED OF A MICROPROCESSOR

The processing speed of a microprocessor is usually measured in millions of instructions

per second. In short it is written as MIPS. In computer literature term throughput is also
used for the number of instructions executed per second. The MIPS rating is used to specify
the integer computation performance of a processor. The processing speed of a microprocessor
for floating-point computation is measured in millions of floating-point instructions per second,
MFLOPS. As the instructions differ from microprocessor to microprocessor for a high-level
language program, the MIPS rating does not give correct idea of processing speed of a
microprocessor. If the same program runs on a RISC as well as on a CISC processor, the
MIPS rating of the RISC processor will be higher because the instructions of a RISC processor
are simpler than those of a CISC processor.
Further, to compare processors with different clock cycles and different instruction sets is
not totally correct. Today SPEC ratings are widely used to specify processor’s performance. SPEC
is the abbreviation of System Performance Evaluation Committee. This committee was formed
in 1989 to develop industry-standard benchmark to evaluate processor’s rating. SPEC ratings are
given in SPECint95 to measure integer performance, and SPECfp95 to measure floating-point
performance. The ‘int’ stands for integer, ‘fp’ for floating-point, 95 is the year in which this standard
was developed. SPECint95 is written in C language, and SPECfp95 in FORTRAN.
Some other ratings are as follows
TPS (Transactions Per Second). It is used for on-line processing application of a
computer. On-line applications demand rapid interactive processing for large number of relative
simple transactions. Each transaction may involve a database search, query, answering, and
database update operations. They are supported by very large databases. Examples are:
railways reservations, airlines reservations, automated teller machines, etc.
KLIPS. For a knowledge-based computer, performance can be measured in kilo logical
inferences per second (KLIPS).
iCOMP. It is Intel’s Comparative Mircroprocessor Performance. It consists of a collection
of benchmarks to evaluate an index of relative performance of Intel microprocessors.
LINPACK Rating. It uses FORTRAN programs for solving linear system of equations
of the order of 100 and higher. Its programs contain high percentage of floating-point operations.
It is very sensitive to vector operation and the degree of vectorization by the computer.
Hence, it is given with specific compiler and degree of linear equations. It is measured in
MFLOPS or GFLOPS.
Dhyrstone. It is synthetic testing benchmark. It gives integer performance. Its unit is
Kdhrystone per second. Its disadvantage is that it is sensitive to compilers.
Whetstone. It is a FORTRAN based synthetic testing benchmark. It measures both
integer and floating-point performance. Its programs take into account array indexing,
subroutine calls, parameter passing, conditional branching, and trigonometric/transcendental
functions. Its unit is KWhetstone per second. It is sensitive to compilers. Whetstone tests do
not perform I/O or system calls.

1.7 MICROPROCESSORS
With the advances in LSI and VLSI technology it became possible to build the whole
CPU of a digital computer on a single IC. A CPU built on a single LSI, VLSI or ULSI chip
INTRODUCTION 1.15

is called a microprocessor. It is the latest development in the field of computer technology as

CHAPTER 1
well as semiconductor technology. A digital computer has a microprocessor as its CPU. A
microprocessor combined with memory, an input device and an output device forms a
microcomputer. The CPU of a large computer contains a number of microprocessors. Each
microprocessor performs a specified task within the CPU. The microprocessors in the CPU
of a large computer operate in parallel.
Table 1.1 Important Intel Microprocessors
Micropro- Year of Word Memory Pins Clock Remarks
cessor Intro- Length Addressing
duction Capacity

4004 1971 4-bit 1 KB 16 750KHz First microprocessor

8085 1976 8-bit 64KB 40 3-6MHz Popular 8-bit micro-
processor
8086 1978 16-bit 1 MB 40 5-10MHz
8088 1980 16-bit 1 MB 40 5-8 MHz Data bus 8-bit, Internal
architecture 16-bit,
widely used in PC XT.
80286 1982 16-bit 16MB real, 68 6-12.5MHz Widely used in PC/AT
4GB Virtual
80386 1985 32-bit 4GB real, 100 20MHz Popular 32-bit Micro-
64 TB Virtual processor
80486 1989 32-bit 4GB real, 168 25-100MHz Improved 32-bit processor,
64TB (17×17) contains FPU and cache
Virtual on the chip.
Pentium 1993 32-bit 4GB real 237PGA 233MHz Contains 2 ALUs, data
bus 64-bit, address
bus 32-bit.
Pentium 1995 32-bit 64GB real 387 pin 150-200MHz Data flow architecture,
Pro PGA contains 2nd-level cache,
operates at 3.3V.
Pentium II 32-bit 64GB real 450MHz Pentium Pro with MMX
technology
Celeron 1998 32-bit 2.6MHz Cheaper 32-bit processor,
based on Pentium Pro
core.
Pentium III 1999 32-bit 64GB real 370PGA 500-1000MHz pentium II + 70 multi-
media instructions.
Pentium 4 2000 32-bit 64 GB 423PGA 1.3-3.2 GHZ
Pentium 4EE
and Pentium 2004 64-bit – 3-3.7 GHZ
6XX series

Itanium 2001 64-bit 423PGA – EPIC Processor

1.16 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Nowadays microprocessors also perform tasks other than those of a CPU. A number of
microprocessors are also used to control input and output devices of a large computer. For
example, a microprocessor is used to control the operation of a keyboard and CRT display
unit. It is used to control the operation of a printer and so on.
The first microprocessor, Intel 4004, a 4-bit microprocessor, was introduced in 1971 by
Intel Corporation. In 1972 Intel introduced the first 8-bit microprocessor, Intel 8008. These
microprocessors used PMOS technology. A more powerful and faster microprocessor, the Intel
8080, using NMOS technology was introduced in 1973. The 8-bit microprocessors were
introduced by a number of companies; examples are: Motorola’s MC 6809, Zilog’s Z80 and
Z800, MOS Technology’s 6500 series, National Semiconductor’s NSC 800 etc. The latest 8-bit
microprocessor of Intel is 8085 introduced in 1976. It is very popular and widely used. The
first Indian 8-bit microprocessor was SCL 6502, manufactured by Semiconductor Complex
Ltd. 8-bit microprocessors were soon followed by 16-bit microprocessors. Examples of 16-bit
microprocessors are: Intel 8086, 80186 and 80286; Motorola’s 68000, 68010, 68012; Texas
Instrument’s TMS 9900, Fairchild 9440, Digital Equipment’s LSI 11 and so on. In the 1980s,
32-bit microprocessors were introduced, and they are still widely used. Examples of 32 bit
microprocessors are Intel 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II. Pentium III,
Celeron and Pentium 4.
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III and Pentium 4 use data flow architecture. Earlier,
Intel’s 4004 to Pentium were Von Neumann type processors. Pentium III is an improved
version of Pentium II. It includes MMX pipeline to provide MMX features. Furthermore, it
contains Internet Streaming SIMD instructions to enhance multimedia performance on the
Internet such as streaming audio and video, animation, 3-D simulation, advanced imaging,
speech recognition etc. Celeron processor is a low-cost 32-bit processor. It includes MMX
features and Internet streaming SIMD instructions. Pentium 4 is an improved version of
Pentium III. It contains more Internet Streaming SIMD instructions and it is faster than
Pentium III. Pentium M is low-cost processor for notebook computers. 32-bit processors of
other companies are: Motorola’s 68020, 68030, 68040 and 68060, Power PC 601, 603, 604, 740
and 750, National Semiconductor’s NS 32032, NS 32332 NS32C532 and M300, AMD’s K5, K6
and Athlon (K7), Cyrix 586 and 686 etc.
Pentium 4 EE (Extreme Edition) and Pentium 4 6XX series are 64-bit processors. Pentium
4 EE 840 is a dual core processor suitable for servers. Itanium is a 64-bit processor of Intel
Corporation. 64-bit processors of other companies are: AMD’s Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX series,
Optiron, Athlon 64X2; PowerPC 620, PowerPC G4, IBM’s G5, SUN’s Ultra SPARC III, Compaq’s
Alpha 21264, MIPS 12000; C-DAC’s Param 10,000 and Param Padma, HP’s PA 8500 series etc.
AMD’s Optiron and Athlon 64X2 are dual core processors.
Table 1.2 Important Microprocessors of Companies other than Intel
Micropr- Make Year of Word length Clock Number of Remarks
ocessor Introduc- Transistors
tion

6809 Motorola 1979 8-bit 4-8 MHz Popular 8-bit micro-

processor
68000 Motorola 1979 32-bit inter- 10-25 MHz 70,000 Popular
nal architect- and widely used
ure, 16-bit
data bus
(Contd.)...
INTRODUCTION 1.17

68040 Motorola 1989 32-bit 20-33 MHz 1.2 million Contains FPU, MMU,

CHAPTER 1
on-chip data cache and
instruction cache
Power PC Motorola, 1993 32-bit 120 MHz 2.8 million RISC processor
601 IBM and
Apple
Power PC Motorola, 1997 32-bit 400 MHz Suitable for notebooks,
750 IBM and mobile and desktop
Apple
K6-3, AMD 1999 32-bit 500 MHz Contains 2nd level and
Athlon 3rd level cache. K7 is
called Athlon
586, 686 Cyrix 32-bit 233 MHz 6X86MX outperforms
and Pentium II
6X86MX
Power PC Motorola, 64-bit 250 MHz 7×106 Suitable for
620 IBM and workstation
Apple
Alpha DEC 64-bit 700 MHz- 9.3×106 RISC processor.
21164, Compaq 1000MHz (21164)
21264 for 21264
ULTRA- SUN 64-bit 200 MHz 3.8×106 RISC processor
SPARC
MIPS MIPS 1999 64-bit 300 MHz 6.4×106 RISC processor.
10,000, (MIPS Suitable for work-
12000 10000) stations.
PA 8500 H.P. 1999 64-bit 440 MHz
68060 Motorola 1995 32-bit – – Suitable for embedded
application
Athlon 0.13 micron
64, Athlon AMD 2003 64-bit 2.66 GHZ – process technology
64 FX

Optiron, Dual-core
Athlon AMD 2005 64-bit 2.4 GHZ – processors
64X2

1.8 SINGLE-CHIP MICROCOMPUTERS (MICROCONTROLLERS)

With the development of VLSI technology it became possible to fabricate a digital computer
on a single IC chip. A digital computer fabricated on a single IC chip is called single-chip
microcomputer. Since it is widely used for control application, it is also called
microcontroller. It is very small and compact. It forms the part of the device or equipment
which is to be controlled. It is used for industrial control, process control, consumer and
appliances control, instrumentation, etc. It contains a CPU, memory (RAM, and ROM/EPROM/
Flash memory) and I/O lines. A powerful microcontroller may contain some other components
1.18 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

which are needed for control applications such as analog-to-digital converter, digital-to-analog
converter, interrupt controller, DMA controller, wave generator, etc.
Intel developed 8-bit microcontrollers 8048 series, in 1976. In 1980 improved 8-bit
microcontrollers 8051 series was developed . 8-bit microcontrollers are used for simple and
low-cost control applications. In 1983, Intel developed 16-bit microcontrollers, 8096 series.
Later on, it developed 80196 series of 16-bit microcontrollers. These were more powerful and
were used in sophisticated industrial control, intelligent computer peripherals, instrumentation,
etc.
Other manufacturers also developed 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit and 32-bit microcontrollers. Motorola
developed 32-bit microcontrollers, MPC-505. IBM developed 32-bit microcontrollers, 403GA. 32-
bit microcontrollers are used for complex control applications. See more detail in Chapter 7.

1.9 COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION

Modern computers are classified as follows:

(i) Palmtop computers, also known as palm PCs or PDA (Personal Digital Assistant).
(ii) Notebook computers, also known as laptop computers. Some trade names of notebook
computers are: IBM’s Thinkpad 570, Compaq’s Armada -E700, M700, M300 series,
H.P.’s Omnibook, Siemen’s Scenic mobile 750 AGB (high-end multimedia notebook),
Apple’s ibook, etc.
(iii) Desktop Computers
(iv) Workstations
(v) Servers
(vi) Super Computers
Palmtop or Handheld Computers. These are the smallest computers available. They
can be held in palm and hence, they are called palmtop computers. They can easily be kept
in a shirt pocket. They are used for tracking appointments, maintaining lists, jotting notes,
etc. They use tiny keyboard and have small disk memory. They can be connected to wireless
network. Some palmtops use touch screen. Palmtops also accept handwritten inputs using an
electronic pen which can be used to write on the palmtop screen. The system has to be
trained on the user’s handwriting before it can be used. A palmtop can be used as a mobile
phone, fax and E-mail. Some palmtops use a proprietary operating system, but it can swap
data with a WINDOWS PC. Some palmtops use Microsoft’s WINDOWS-CE operating system.
WINDOWS-CE is a stripped-down version of Microsoft WINDOWS. It is designed to provide
a WINDOWS interface for palm PC’s, some other types of very small computers, and tools
and appliances other than PCs.
Notebook PCs or Notebook Computers (Laptop Computers). These are portable
computers. They contain 32-bit CPU, hard disks, floppy disks, CD-ROM drive, modem and flat
LCD screen. Colour displays are available. They consume less power and use batteries for
their operation. They are used for word processing and spreadsheet computing while a person
is travelling. They can be connected to computer network. Wireless connection can be pro-
vided to laptop computers so that they can get information from large stationary computers.
They generally use WINDOWS-XP operating system. Notebook PC with LINUX operating
system has also been developed. Hard disk capacity up to 60 GB, RAM capacity up to 256 MB,
INTRODUCTION 1.19

etc. are available on a notebook. Multimedia system is now available. Some notebook com-

CHAPTER 1
puters are provided with finger recognition system.
Centrino Notebooks. The notebooks which are manufactured using Intel’s Pentium M
processor, Intel’s mobile chipset (the 855 GME or 915 M) and Intel PROSet wireless LAN
card, are said to have Centrino technology.
Centrino Duo Mobile Technology (NAPA)
Intel India has launched Centrino Duo Mobile technology in January, 2006. Its code
name is NAPA. Centrino Duo is the next generation of mobile computing platform. It consists
of the following three parts:
(i) Intel Core Duo Processor Called Yonah. It uses 65 nm (nanometer) process
technology. It is a dual core processor designed for mobile computers. It has on-die
32 KB instruction cache and 32 KB data cache. A 2 MB L2 cache is shared by two
cores using the Intel Smart Cache technology which allows dynamic allocation of
cache to the cores depending on processing load on the cores.
(ii) Mobile Intel 945 Express chipset family. It gives dual channel DDR2 667 support.
This chipset has two variants-945 GM and 945 PM. The 945 PM is pure performance
chipset which consumes less power. The 945 GM offers Intel Media Accelerator 950
to deliver improved graphics performance.
(iii) Intel PRO/Wireless 3945ABG Network Connection. It is a smarter, smaller
and sleeker wireless solution. It is compatible with the latest 802.11e standard.
Desktop Computers. These computers are single-user personal computers (PCs) and
can be placed on a desk and hence, they are called desktop computers. They use 32-bit
processors such as Pentium 4, Celeron, Athlon-XP etc. The hard disk capacity of 80GB and
RAM capacity of 512 MB are used. Optical disks and 3.5 inch floppy disks are used as backup
memory. Operating system used are: WINDOWS-XP, WINDOWS-NT, LINUX, Mac OS-X etc.
Some desktop computers use fingerprint recognition system to provide better security. Such
a system falls under “Biometry”. For finger recognition, the user has to slide his fingers
across a scanner, which senses the patterns caused by the ridges and furrows on the fingertip.
Workstation. Workstations are more powerful computers than desktop computers. They
are suitable for numeric and graphic intensive applications. They are used in scientific and
engineering applications such as computer aided design (CAD), simulation etc., which require
greater processing power, larger storage capacity and better graphics capability. They have
longer colour video display unit (monitor of 19 inch or more). They have hard disk and RAM
capacity more than those of a desktop computer. The RAM capacity may be of a few GB and
hard disk capacity of a few hundred GB. They use RISC processors such as SUN’s UltraSPARC
III, HP’s PA-8500 or 8800, Compaq’s Alpha 21264, MIPS 12000, etc. Operating systems used
are multiuser such as UNIX, SUN’s Solaris, HP’s HP-UX etc.
Servers. These are powerful computers. A number of PCs and terminals can be connected
to a server. Servers are provided with large disk and RAM capacity. In a low-end server only
one microprocessor is used to act as a CPU. On the other hand in a high-end server, a
number of microprocessors are provided in the CPU. Microprocessors in a multiprocessor
CPU operate in parallel. The user working on a PC connected to a server, makes simple
computation on his own PC, but for more complex computation he can connect his PC to the
server through the LAN, WAN or Internet. He can utilize computing power, all facilities and
database available with the server. He can also avail the facilities available at other PCs
1.20 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

connected to the server. The computer connected to the server through a network is called
client. The aforesaid type of computing is known as client-server computing. Recently multicore
64-bit processors have been developed by many companies. These are quite suitable for server
computers. Servers use multiuser operating systems such as UNIX, LINUX, HP-UX, SUN’s
Solaris etc.
Super Computers. These are the most powerful computers. They are used for very
complex computation work. They use vector processors. Intensive parallelism is used in
supercomputers. A number of RISC microprocessors are used in the CPU of a supercomputer.
Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, in aerodynamics, seismology; atomic, plasma
and nuclear analysis; for weapons research and development, sending rockets into space, etc.
In some applications in aerodynamics and nuclear physics, as many as 1013 arithmetic
operations are needed for a single problem. This may take a number of hours of computing
time on a supercomputer. Hence, there is a constant demand to increase the power of a
supercomputer. Examples of supercomputers are: Cray-1 (1976), Cray 2 (1985), Cray T3D
(1993), NEC’s SX-S/44 (1991), Fujitsu VP 2600/10 (1991), Hitachi 820/80 (1987), C-DAC’s PARAM
series of supercomputers etc. Current world’s top supercomputers are: BlueGene/L DD2 Beta-
system of IBM which has a speed of 70.7 TFLOPS and uses 400 PowerPC processors; Columbia
(NASA) which has a speed of 51.9 TFLOPS and uses 10,240 Itanium 2 processors; Earth
Simulator (NEC) with a speed of 40 TFLOS and uses 5120 NEC CPUs; etc. C-DAC’s PARAM
10,000 uses 160 UltraSPARC III processors. Its computing power is 100 GFLOPS. It has open
frame architecture and can scale upto TFLOPS level. It uses C-DAC’s own designed
communication processor and network. C-DAC’s PARAM Padma supercomputer has a peek
computing power of 1 TFLOPS and 5 terabytes of storage. It is powered by 248 IBM’s Power
4 RISC processors of 1 GHZ clock frequency. It runs AIX 5.1L operating system. Its primary
interconnect is ParamNet-II, 2.5 GFLOPS, full duplex with backup gigabyte Ethernet network.
Its parallel programming is done through C-DAC HPCC software. It ranked 171 in June 2003
list of top 500 supercomputers in the world. Other Indian supercomputers are: C-Dot’s (Center
for Development of Telemetics) Chip-152, National Aeronautical Laboratory’s Mark-3, Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre’s (BARC) Anupam; PACE series of supercomputers of Defence Research
and Development Organization (DRDO), Hyderabad, etc.
Earlier Classification. Earlier, computers were classified as microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe (or large) computers and supercomputers. This classification is no
longer used. Microcomputers are low-cost small computers. They include portable computers,
personal computers i.e., PCs (single-user desktop computers), computers for dedicated
applications like industrial control, instrumentation, appliance control etc. Minicomputers are
more powerful multiuser computers. They contain more RAM and hard disk capacity compared
to microcomputers. High-end minicomputers contain more than one microprocessor in their
CPU. Large or mainframe computers are more powerful than minicomputers. They use very
large capacity of RAM and hard disk. They use UNIX and other multiuser operating system.
Examples of mainframe computers are: IBM’s ES-9000, DEC’s VAX-9000, CDC Cyber-2000 V,
etc. Supercomputers have already been described in new classification.
1.9.1 Computer Pen
It is a computer housed within a pen. It can function as a diary, alarm, notetaker and
can receive E-mail and pager messages. Unlike a conventional handheld computer, it has no
keyboard. It does not need a screen to work. It saves in its memory what user is writing.
It links to a printer, mobile phone, modem or PC allowing handwritten notes to be transmitted.
INTRODUCTION 1.21

It has been developed by BI, a research laboratory in U.K. The prototype is called SmartQuill.

CHAPTER 1
It has ability to record handwriting not only on paper but also on any flat surface-horizontal
or vertical. A tiny light at the tip allows writing in dark. SmartQuill can even translate
invisible writing in the air.

1.10 USER INTERFACE

User interface provides communication means between an user and the computer. There
are two types of user interface : text/typing type and icon/mouse type. In text/typing type user
interface, the user has to type commands using a keyboard. In DOS operating system the
user has to type commands. It provides text/typing type user interface. In icon (small graphical
symbol) type user interface, the user tells the computer to carry out certain commands by
pointing to an icon. Such user interface is also called GUI (Graphical User Interface). A
pointing device such as mouse can be used to point to an icon. Such system also provides a
list of available commands called a menu. The user can point to a command in the menu.
Today GUI is commonly used by most of the operating systems.

1.11 HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, FIRMWARE, MIDDLEWARE AND FREEWARE

The physical components of a computer are called hardware. A physical component may
be electronic, electrical, magnetic, mechanical or optical. Examples of hardware are
microprocessors and other ICs, hard disks, floppy disks, optical disks, cathode ray tube (CRT),
keyboard, printer, plotter, etc.
A sequence of instructions given to a computer to perform a particular task is called a
program. A set of programs written for a computer is called software. The software required
to execute user’s program is known as system software. The term software includes both
system software and user’s programs. The system software includes operating system,
assembler, compiler, interpreter, debugging programs, text editors, etc. The operating system
is a collection of programs which controls the overall operation of a computer. The programs
stored in ROMs, PROMs, EPROMs or Flash memory are called firmware. Nowadays a large
variety of prewritten programs are available to solve specific tasks. Users need not prepare
programs for such tasks. They should simply know how to use such prewritten programs.
Prewritten programs for specific tasks are called application programs or application packages.
Important application packages available are WordStar and MS-Word for text manipulation,
LOTUS 1-2-3 and MS-Excel for preparation of spreadsheet; MS-ACCESS, ORACLE, UNIFY
and FOXBASE for handling database, etc. MS-Office is an integrated package. It includes a
word processing package-Word, a spreadsheet package-Excel, a database management package-
Access, a presentation package-PowerPoint, and a Scheduling and Organization package-
Outlook. Software package for designing buildings, structures, power systems, inventory
control, accounting, dealing with projects, etc. are available.
Middleware. It is software that operates at the level between an application program
and a network. It can mediate the interaction between separate applications across
heterogeneous computing platforms on a network.
Some software are available free of cost. They can be downloaded form Internet. Such
software are called freeware.
1.22 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

1.11.1 Operating System

An operating system is a collection of programs which controls the overall operation of
a computer. It manages files on a disk. It permits users to create, print, copy, delete, read,
write to files. It formats disks and controls input and output devices. It executes programs,
allocates memory space to users, schedules jobs, provides user interface to computers, prevents
interference between users in a multiuser system, it processes user’s commands, and so on
and so forth.
Several operating systems have been developed over the years. Some important operating
systems which are for single-user systems are: MS-DOS, OS/2, WINDOWS-98, WINDOWS-
XP etc. At present WINDOWS-XP is commonly used. Operating systems for multiuser system
are: UNIX, LINUX, Novell Netware, SUN’s Solaris, WINDOWS-2003, Mac OS X(ten), etc.
1.11.2 Programming Languages
A computer understands information composed of only zeros and ones. A program written
in terms of 0s and 1s is called a machine language program. Computer instructions are
written in binary codes. A machine language uses only binary codes. The writing of programs
in machine language is a very difficult, tiresome and very boring job. Moreover, it is errorprone.
To overcome this difficulty a program can be written in alphanumeric symbols instead of 0s
and 1s. Meaningful symbols called mnemonics are used for this purpose. For example, ADD
is used for addition, SUB for subtraction, CMP for comparison, etc. A language which uses
mnemonics is called an assembly language. A program written in an assembly language is
called an assembly language program.
An instruction is a command given to a computer to perform specified task. The instruction
set of a processor is the collection of instructions that the processor is designed to execute.
In assembly language a mnemonic is an instruction. Instructions are classified into groups
like data transfer, arithmetic, logical, branch control, and I/O and machine control instructions..
Data transfer group includes instructions for transferring data from register to register,
register to memory and memory to register. Instruction of arithmetic group perform addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. on data placed in a register or memory. Logical
group instructions perform AND, OR, EX-OR, comparison, rotate, etc. operations on the
contents of registers. Instructions of branch control group perform conditional and unconditional
jumps, subroutine call and return, and restart. I/O and machine control group instructions
perform input, output, stack and machine control operations.
When a program is written in a language other than machine language, the computer
will not understand this. Therefore, a program written in other langauges must be translated
into machine language before it is executed. The task of translation is done by software. A
program which translates an assembly language program into a machine language program
is called an assembler.
A language in which each statement or an instruction is directly translated into a single
machine code is known as a low-level language. Each mnemonic of an assembly language has
a unique machine code. An assembly language is a low-level language. A machine language
is also a low-level language. An assembly language depends on the internal architecture of
a processor. Each processor has its own assembly language. Assembly language of one processor
cannot be used for another processor. In other words it is not portable. To write an assembly
language program, a programmer must have the detailed knowledge of the instruction set of
the particular processor, its internal architecture, registers, and connection of pheripherals
INTRODUCTION 1.23

to ports etc. It is not very fast and efficient programming language. To overcome the difficulties

CHAPTER 1
associated with assembly language, high-level (procedure-oriented/object-oriented) languages
have been developed. In a high-level language an instruction is called statement rather than
mnemonic. Statements more closely resemble English and Mathematics than mnemonics.
High-level languages permit programmers to describe tasks in the forms which are problem
oriented rather than computer oriented. Programming in a high-level language does not
require precise knowledge of the architecture of a computer which is to be used. A program
written in a high-level language will run on any computer which has a compiler for that
language. In other words a high-level language is portable.
A program which translates a high-level language program into a machine language
program is called a compiler. An interpreter is also a program which translates a high-level
language program into machine language program. It reads one statement at a time, translates
it into machine codes, executes it and then goes to the next statement of the program. On
the other hand a compiler reads an entire program once or twice and then translates it. A
compiler is faster and more powerful than an interpreter. A compiler is a larger program and
occupies more memory space. It is costlier than interpreter.
Important high-level languages are: BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, C and C++
languages, PROLOG, JAVA etc. BASIC is a abbreviation for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code. It is a very simple and easy language for beginners. It is suitable for
scientific calculation. FORTRAN stands for Formula Translation. It is a powerful language for
scientific and engineering computations. COBOL stands for Common Business Oriented
Language. It is suitable for business data processing. PASCAL is a multipurpose language
suitable for both scientific and business applications. This language has been named in
honour of Blaise Pascal, a great mathematician and inventor. PROLOG stands for
Programming in LOGIC. It is suitable for artificial intelligence applications. It has been
chosen for fifth generation computers. A large number of high-level languages have been
developed. A particular language may be very efficient for a particular field. JAVA is an object
oriented language. It is suitable for Internet applications.

1.12 BATCH PROCESSING, MULTIPROGRAMMING AND MULTIUSER SYSTEM

In a batch processing system a computer serves one user at a time. When the program
of one user is completed, then only, another program is started. This type of system does not
allow a user to interact with the computer. The large computers used in the 1960s, executed
programs one by one using this method.
In multiprogramming several programs are processed by a computer simultaneously.
Usually, a CPU is much faster as compared to I/O devices. While I/O devices are performing
certain tasks the CPU may not be doing any task, it may be lying idle. To keep CPU busy
for most of the time, it is desirable to process a number of programs concurrently. This is
achieved by overlapping CPU and I/O operations when several programs are running
simultaneously. The multiprogramming is an improvement over batch processing, but it still
does not allow users to interact with the computer.
In a multiuser system a number of users can work simultaneously. It allows each user
to interact with the computer. It is also known as time-shared system. A number of video
terminals are connected to a computer. Users enter data at very slow rate, and computer
processes data at very fast rate. Making use of this fact a computer serves several users
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Sauvageon. Domestica. 1. Montreal Hort. Soc. Rpt. 94. 1885.
Corse’s Sauvageon 1.
Raised from seed by Henry Corse of Montreal, Canada. Tree
strong, vigorous, hardy, productive; fruit dark blue; flesh reddish
tinged, firm, sweet and pleasant; late.
Sayer Favorite. Domestica. 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 94. 1877.
In 1877 J. E. Johnson in a report to the American Pomological
Society mentioned this as a very fine seedling variety growing in
Utah.
Scaldatone. Domestica. Mentioned in Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 153.
1831.
Scanarda. Species? Mentioned in Mathieu Nom. Pom. 449. 1889.
Die Scanarda. Scanarda.
Scaudatella. Domestica. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 153. 1831. 2.
Gallesio Pom. Ital. 2: Pl. 1839.
Scaldatello 1. Susino Scaudatella 2.
An old variety well known in Italy. Fruit medium, obovate, yellow;
flesh yellow, meaty, juicy and sweet.
Schamal. Domestica. 1. Ann. Pom. Belge 7:31, Pl. 1859. 2.
Downing Fr. Trees Am. 897. 1869. 3. Le Bon Jard. LII. 1884.
4. Guide Prat. 161, 354. 1895.
Automne de Schamali 2. Damascena Schamali 1, 2, 4. D’Automne
de Schamal 2. Prune d’Automne de Schamal 1, 3, 4. Prune
d’Automne de Schamali 2. Schamal 4. Schamals Herbstpflaume 4.
Obtained by M. Schamal, nurseryman and pomologist at
Jungbunzlau, Bohemia; first noted by Liegel in 1844. Tree vigorous,
productive; young branches smooth, brownish-red; fruit large, pear-
shaped; suture deep; halves unequal; stem slender, smooth;
purplish-red; flesh yellowish, juicy, tender, sweet, vinous; stone oval,
free; mid-season.
Schenectady. Domestica. 1. Mag. Hort. 446. 1847. 2. Thomas Am.
Fruit Cult. 342. 1849. 3. Elliott Fr. Book 414. 1854. 4.
Cultivator 6:52, 269. 1858. 5. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 947.
1869. 6. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 402. 1881.
Catharinenpflaume von Schenectady 6. Schenectady Catharine 4.
Schenectady Catherine Plum 1, 2, 5. Schenectady Catherine 3.
Originated at Schenectady, New York, about 1800; introduced by
Dr. Herman Wendell. It was described in the American Pomological
Society’s catalog for twenty-two years. Tree vigorous, productive;
fruit small, roundish-oval; suture shallow; cavity small; reddish-
purple; bloom thin; flesh greenish-yellow, melting, juicy, rich, sweet;
very good; freestone; mid-season; said to reproduce itself from
seed.
Schieblers Eier Pflaume. Domestica. Mentioned in Mathieu Nom.
Pom. 449. 1889.
Schiebler Luisante. Domestica. 1. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort.
409. 1881.
A seedling of the Red Egg plum, similar, but not an improvement.
Schlachter Früh Zwetsche. Domestica? 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom.
449. 1889. 2. Guide Prat. 163, 366. 1895.
A variety resembling German Prune.
Schley. Munsoniana. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:65, 87. 1892. 2. Waugh
Plum Cult. 188. 1901.
Schley’s Large Red 1, 2.
Originated near Augusta, Georgia; introduced by J. W. K. Nelson
of that state. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oval; suture slight;
cavity of medium depth; bright red with numerous dots; skin tough;
flesh yellow; poor; clingstone; mid-season.
Schmidt Rote Zwetsche. Domestica. 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 449.
1889.
Quetsche Rouge de Schmidt 1.
 Mathieu found it referred to in Wiener Garten-Zeitung 289. 1884.
Schoenthal. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894-1900.
Fruit of medium size, globular, dull red; stone semi-clinging.
Schöne von Riom. Domestica. 1. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 445.
1881.
Mentioned as an unproductive variety on dry soils.
Schuyler Gage. Domestica. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 147. 1831. 2.
Cultivator 1:306. 1844. 3. Ibid. 3:19. 1855. 4. Downing Fr.
Trees Am. 947. 1869. 5. Mas Le Verger 6:103. 1866-73.
Reine-Claude de Schuyler 5. Schuyler Gage 5.
A seedling of Reine Claude grown at Albany, New York, by General
Schuyler of revolutionary fame, who refused to disseminate it. His
successor in the ownership of the tree, John Bryan, also guarded the
variety jealously, so that it was not until about 1847 when E. C.
McIntosh came into possession of the estate that the variety was
introduced. Fruit of medium size, oval; suture shallow; cavity small;
yellow splashed with green and dotted with red; bloom thin; flesh
yellow, juicy, rich, sweet; very good; freestone; late.
Scioto. Insititia. 1. U. S. D. A. Yearbook 502. 1905.
Mussel 1. Chickasaw 1.
Cultivated for nearly eighty years in the noted Damson district at
Chillicothe, Ohio. It was brought there in 1831 by Miss Palace Hill
from the nursery of her brother, Joseph C. Hill, Petersburg, Virginia,
who in turn had found it on the farm of Thomas Hill near Bollings
Bridge, North Carolina. The variety is of the Damson type and the
seed of it was probably brought from Europe by the early colonists.
Fruit small, oval, necked; suture slight; cavity lacking; dark blue;
bloom heavy; good.
Scribner. Triflora × Munsoniana. 1. U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt. 46, Col.
Pl. 1895. 2. Vt. Sta. Bul. 67:19. 1898. 3. Waugh Plum Cult.
225. 1901.
 From J. S. Breece, Fayetteville, North Carolina, supposedly from a
cross of Abundance pollinated by Wild Goose. Fruit large, roundish-
oval; suture faint; cavity large; stem short, stout; dark red with
many small dots; bloom heavy; flesh yellow, firm, meaty; quality
very poor; clingstone.
Sea-Egg. Triflora. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 106:62. 1906.
Bailey mentions this variety as coming from Burbank and
describes it as; “globular heart shaped in outline and mottled red;
flesh very thick and meaty; orange-yellow, sweet and excellent, with
a slight muskiness, cling.”
Semiana. Domestica. 1. Forsyth Treat. Fr. Trees 21. 1803. 2.
Thomas Am. Fruit Cult. 344, 346. 1849. 3. Cole Am. Fr. Book
217. 1849. 4. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 947. 1869.
Blue Impératrice 2, 3, 4. Semiana of Boston 4. Semina 1. Simiana
2.
At one time grown extensively around Boston; often confused with
Blue Impératrice and the Semiana or Suisse of Europe. It is,
however, much inferior to either of the above. Tree vigorous, very
productive; fruit of medium size, oval, necked; cavity very small;
deep purple; flesh greenish, juicy, subacid, not rich; clingstone; very
late.
Seper. Nigra? 1. Kerr Cat. 1897-1900. 2. Waugh Plum Cult. 171.
1901.
Seper’s Peach 2. Seper’s Peach 1.
Introduced by J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland. Fruit large, roundish-
oblong, dark red; quality poor; clingstone.
September. Americana 1. Meneray Cat.
One of H. A. Terry’s numerous varieties; introduced by F. W.
Meneray of Council Bluffs, Iowa. Fruit large, round, bright red; fair
quality.
September Damask. Insititia. 1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:77.
1768. 2. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:45, Tab. 200 fig. 1. 1796. 3.
Prince Pom. Man. 2:84. 1832. 4. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1. 1846.
5. Hogg Fruit Man. 357. 1866. 6. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 947.
1869. 7. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:1. 1873. 8. Mathieu Nom. Pom.
451. 1889.
Damas de Septembre 1, 2, 5, 7. Damas de Septembre 3, 6, 8. Die
späte oder September Damaskpflaume 2. Michaelis Pflaume 8.
Münchenpflaume 8. Prune Damas de Septembre 4. Prune de
Vacance 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Prunier des Vacances 3, 6, 8. Sankt-
Michel’s Pflaume 8. September Damascene 8. September Damask 3.
September Damask 7, 8. September Damson 1. Vakanzpflaume 8.
An old variety probably of French origin. Tree of medium vigor,
productive; shoots downy; fruit small, roundish to slightly elongated;
suture shallow; stem short; cavity shallow; skin tender, purplish-
black, covered with a thick bloom; flesh greenish, fine, melting,
sweet, agreeable when well ripened; freestone; late.
Shaker. Americana? 1. Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 80. 1880.
Grown in Iowa from seed brought from Ohio. Fruit red, coloring a
month before maturity; ripening period very long.
Shaw. Species? 1. Bailey Ann. Hort. 103. 1889.
Mentioned by Bailey in the Annals of Horticulture as introduced by
Lovett in 1889; not listed in Lovett’s catalogs.
Shedd Cluster. Munsoniana? Letter from F. T. Ramsey.
A prolific variety resembling Robinson selected from the wild on
the line between Lampasas and Coryelle counties, Texas, by a Mr.
Shedd.
Sheldon. Domestica. 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 948. 1869.
Originated on the farm of Wareham Sheldon, Huron, Wayne
County, New York. Tree vigorous and prolific; fruit large, oval; suture
a line; cavity small; purplish-black; bloom thick; flesh greenish-
yellow, juicy, aromatic; good; freestone; mid-season.
Shepherd Bullace. Insititia. 1. Watkins Nur. Cat. 48. 1892? 2.
Thompson Gard. Ass’t 4:160. 1901.
Shepherd’s White 2.
A large Bullace mentioned without description in the preceding
references.
Shepway Bulleis. Insititia. 1. Parkinson Par. Ter. 576. 1629.
Parkinson mentions under this name a large “dark bluish-brown”
plum of the Bullace type inferior to the common variety.
Shilling. Domestica. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894. 2. Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:256,
257. 1905.
A variety introduced by J. W. Kerr in 1894. Fruit of medium size,
oblong-oval, pointed at the apex; cavity shallow; suture a line; stem
short, stout; dull red; bloom light; flesh yellow; quality poor;
clingstone; mid-season.
Shipper. Triflora. 1. Burbank Cat. 18. 1893. 2. Childs Cat. 62. 1896.
A seedling of Satsuma grown by Burbank; introduced in 1896 by
John Lewis Childs, Floral Park, New York. Fruit oval, light red; flesh
very firm, juicy, sweet; keeps and ships well; mid-season.
Shirata Bene. Triflora. 1. Lovett Cat. 1892. 2. Ohio Sta. Bul.
162:256, 257. 1905.
Introduced as a crimson plum but described at the Ohio
Experiment Station as yellow.
Shviata Bene. Triflora. 1. Gard. Mon. 367. 1887.
Uwase 1. Blood Plum 1.
H. H. Berger states that the above name and synonyms were
applied to a red-fleshed variety indigenous to Japan. Probably a
class name.
Siamese. Domestica. 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 284. 1845.
Fruit in pairs firmly attached on one side and hanging from a
single stem. The original tree grew in the garden of Wm. Roe,
Newburgh, New York. Fruit of medium size, obovate; cavity small;
skin pale yellow; flesh yellow, juicy, sprightly; quality fair; clingstone;
mid-season.
Sidone. Species? Mentioned in Mathieu Nom. Pom. 450. 1889.
Siebenburger Pflaume. Species? 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 450.
1889. 2. Guide Prat. 163, 366. 1895.
“A variety of little merit.”
Sierra. Subcordata. 1. Can. Hort. 19:405. 1896.
Sierra Crimson 1.
Reported in the preceding reference by S. S. Watkins, Grizzly Flats,
California, as a very good wild plum growing high up in the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. Said to bear beautiful crimson fruit about the
size of the Reine Claude, of good quality; highly recommended for
jelly.
Silassy. Domestica. 1. Mich. Sta. Bul. 118:52. 1895. 2. Ibid.
152:211. 1898.
Imported from Hungary by the Michigan Experiment Station.
Silas Wilson. Americana. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:80. 1892. 2. Can.
Exp. Farms Rpt. 105. 1900. 3. Terry Cat. 1900.
Grown by H. A. Terry, from seed of Hawkeye; first fruited in 1891.
Fruit large, oval; cavity shallow; suture a line; red over a yellow
ground; dots numerous; flesh yellow, juicy; good; clingstone; mid-
season.
Silva Koning Claudie. Domestica. 1. Wickson Cal. Fruits 358.
1891.
Miller’s Early 1.
 Described by Wickson as an undetermined variety brought from
Germany by Dr. L. E. Miller, of California, in 1854; introduced by C.
M. Silva & Son of Newcastle, California, in 1887. Fruit purplish-black;
fine flavor; similar in size to the Early Royal, and about a month
earlier.
Sirocco. Triflora ×? 1. U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt. 47. 1895. 2. Vt. Sta.
Bul. 67:19. 1895.
J. S. Breece, of Fayetteville, North Carolina grew this variety as a
cross between Abundance and Marianna. Fruit of medium size,
roundish-oval; cavity small; suture a line; coppery-red with streaks
of yellow; dots minute, russet; flesh reddish near the skin but yellow
towards the stone, juicy; good.
Sisson. Subcordata kelloggii. 1. Bailey Ev. Nat. Fruits 216, 217.
1898.
Fruit larger than the wild Subcordata; yellow or red; flesh soft and
palatable. See the discussion of Prunus subcordata, page 74.
Sixby. Americana. 1. Wis. Sta. Bul. 87:15. 1901.
Sent out by Edson Gaylord, Nora Springs, Iowa. Fruit small; suture
distinct; bright red with conspicuous dots; skin adherent; flesh deep
yellow tinged with red, crisp, rich; stone oval.
Six Weeks. Triflora × Angustifolia varians? 1. Kerr Cat. 10. 1901-2.
2. Tex. Nur. Cat. 8. 1907. 3. Tex. Dept. Agr. Bul. 12:102.
1910.
Early Six Weeks.
Grown from seed of Abundance crossed with an early “Chicasaw;”
named and introduced by J. S. Kerr of Texas. Tree vigorous, upright,
rapid in growth, resembles the native variety more than Triflora; fruit
large, oblong, yellow tinged red; early.
Skuya. Triflora × Americana. 1. S. Dak. Sta. Bul. 108. 1908.
A cross between De Soto and Red June made by Hansen of the
South Dakota Experiment Station resulted in eight seedlings of which
the above was the first to fruit. Fruit large, dark, dull red and yellow,
sweet; good; stone small.
Sloe. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894-1900. 2. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:59.
1897.
Sloe is a small native variety that has been given the common
name of the wild European plum. (See the following name.) Fruit
small, roundish-oblong; skin thick, dark red; clingstone; mid-season.
The name is also applied in one locality or another to nearly all of
the American species of plums as they grow wild.
Sloe. Spinosa. 1. Parkinson Par. Ter. 576. 1629. 2. Ray Hist. Plant.
1529. 1688. 3. Knoop Fructologie 2:63. 1771. 4. Prince Pom.
Man. 2:106. 1832.
Blackthorn 4. Black Prunella 2. Common Sloe 4. Épine noire 4.
Petit prunallier 4. Pruneola 1. Prunelle 3. Prune Sauvage 3. Prunus
silvestris 3. Prunus spinosa, foliis lanceolatis 3. Prunelier 4. Prunus
spinosa 4. Prunier èpineux 4. Prunallier 4. Slee-Pruim 3. White
Prunella 2. White Blossomed Sloe 4.
See Prunus spinosa.
Small Green Drying. Domestica. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 153.
1831.
A variety under test in the garden of the London Horticultural
Society.
Small White Damson. Insititia. 1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:81.
1768. 2. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:44, Tab. 198 fig. 1. 1796. 3. Floy-
Lindley Guide Orch. Gard. 300. 1846. 4. Noisette Man. Comp.
Jard. 2:496. 1860. 5. Mas Le Verger 6:127. 1866-73. 6. Hogg
Fruit Man. 726. 1884. 7. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 427. 1889.
Damas blanc petit 6, 7. Damascenen Mirabelle 7. Die Kleine
Weisse Damascenerpflaume 2. Kleine Weisse Damascene 7. Klein
Weisse Damassener Pflaume 5. Petit Damas Blanc 1, 5. Petit Damas
Blanc 2, 3, 7. Prune Petit Damas Blanc 5. Prunier Damas à petit fruit
blanc 4. Small White Damask 6. Small White Damask 7. White
Damask 3.
Probably a French variety. Tree of medium productiveness; shoots
smooth; fruit small, roundish, inclining to ovate; stem medium in
length, slender; skin yellowish, tinged with red on the sunny side;
flesh yellow, firm, juicy, sweet and well flavored; freestone; mid-
season; culinary.
Smiley. Munsoniana. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:80. 1892. 2. Am. Pom.
Soc. Cat. 40. 1899. 3. Waugh Plum Cult. 188. 1901. 4. Ga.
Sta. Bul. 67:281, 282. 1904.
Thought to have originated in Alabama. Tree vigorous with an
open and spreading habit, very productive; fruit medium or above,
roundish-oval to roundish-oblong; cavity shallow, rounded; suture a
line; red with numerous small, yellow dots; skin tough; flesh yellow,
soft; quality fair to good; stone medium, oval, somewhat flattened,
clinging; mid-season.
Smith. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894. 2. Wis. Sta. Bul. 87:18. 1901.
3. Waugh Plum Cult. 164. 1901.
A seedling of Quaker grown by C. A. Smith, Caroline County,
Maryland. Tree of straggling, open growth, vigorous and productive;
fruit large, sometimes very large, roundish-oval to roundish-oblong;
suture a line; apex rounded; cavity shallow, narrow; stem short and
stout; yellow overspread with dark red; dots small, yellow; bloom
heavy; skin thick, tough; flesh deep yellow, juicy, firm, sweet; good
to best; stone large, oval, nearly free; medium early. Waugh says,
“One of the best Americanas I ever saw.”
Smith October. Domestica. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 146. 1896.
A seedling grown by A. M. Smith, St. Catherines, Ontario. Fruit of
medium size, slightly one-sided; suture obscure; black, somewhat
mottled; bloom light; flesh dark yellow, firm, subacid; quality fair;
stone small, globular with a deep hollow alongside a thickened
margin.
Smith Prolific. Domestica. 1. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:56.
1900. 2. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 433. 1905.
Under test at the Experimental Farm at Agassiz, British Columbia.
Fruit medium in size, globular; cavity deep; stem short; suture
distinct and terminating in a depression; yellowish with a purple-red
cheek; bloom thin; flesh yellowish, juicy, sprightly; stone of medium
size, clinging; mid-season.
Smith Red. Nigra? 1. Wis. Sta. Rpt. 11:345. 1894. 2. Wis. Sta. Bul.
63:59, 60. 1897. 3. Waugh Plum Cult. 171. 1901.
Smith’s Red 1, 2.
Sent to the Wisconsin Experiment Station in 1890 by I. F. Gale &
Son, Waukesha, Wisconsin. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large,
round-oval; suture a line; stem short and stout, set in a shallow
cavity; purplish-red, shading to orange; dots minute; bloom thin;
skin thick with a very slight harshness; flesh yellow, firm, sweet; fair
to good; stone large, oval, thin, clinging; mid-season.
Snelling. Nigra. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 136. 1894. 2. Can. Exp.
Farm Bul. 43:39. 1903.
Grown by W. H. Snelling, New Edinburgh, Ontario, about 1880
from a sprout of an old tree growing at Gatineau Point, Quebec.
Fruit medium to large, usually round; stem an inch long, set in a
round cavity; suture distinct; yellowish-red, mostly covered with
darker red; bloom light; skin thin, tender, apt to crack when fully
ripe, slightly astringent; flesh soft, very juicy, sweet; good; stone
large, flat; mid-season.
Snyder. Americana. 1. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:288. 1900. 2. Budd-Hansen
Am. Hort. Man. 301. 1903.
A seedling of De Soto; originated in 1893 with J. A. Fairchild,
Coggon, Linn County, Iowa. Tree vigorous, upright; fruit large,
roundish, oblique-truncate; suture a line; apex depressed; stem
stout set in a shallow cavity; light red with darker shades of red;
dots large; bloom thin; flesh yellow, firm, brisk subacid; fair to good;
stone large, oval, flat, clinging.
Souris. Nigra? 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 426. 1900.
Under test at Indian Head, Northwest Territory, Canada.
South Cumberland. Species? 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 151. 1891.
P. J. Berckmans of Augusta, Georgia, says in the above reference
that this variety has been known for twenty-six or twenty-seven
years in his section. Fruit golden yellow; very good.
Southern Beauty. Species? 1. Wild Bros. Cat. 1892. 2. Kerr Cat.
1894.
Tree peach-like in growth and general appearance; wholly barren;
possibly the Blackman renamed; worthless.
Southern Golden. Species? 1. Ala. Sta. Bul. 11:12. 1890.
Noted in the preceding reference as a feeble grower; fruit medium
in size, oblong, yellow, tender; quality best; early.
Spanish Damask. Domestica. 1. Kraft Pom. Aust. 2:129, Tab. 175
fig. 2. 1796. 2. Forsyth Treat. Fr. Trees 21. 1803. 3. Willich
Dom. Enc. 4:300. 1803. 4. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1. 1846. 5.
Hogg Fruit Man. 693. 1884. 6. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 439. 1889.
Damas d’Espagne 1, 6. Damas D’Espagne 5. Die Damaskpflaume
aus Spanien 1. Liegel’s Spanische Damascene 6. Prune Damas
D’Espagne 4. Prunus hispanica 4. Spanish Damascene 2. Spanish
Damask 6. Spanish Red Damask 3.
Fruit small, roundish; suture shallow; cavity small; stem short;
purplish-black; bloom thick; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, not rich;
quality fair; freestone; mid-season.
Spanish King. Domestica. 1. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 355. 1878. 2. Ibid.
145. 1880. 3. Mich. Sta. Bul. 169:243, 247. 1899. 4. Ia. Sta.
Bul. 46:279. 1900. 5. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 326.
1903.
 Rex 1, 2. Spanish 3.
Introduced into Marion County, Iowa, by John Laike, a German,
under the name Rex, through cions obtained in 1872 from a Spanish
consul. Several tests show this variety to be identical with the
Lombard. If the origin given is correct, the belief that the Lombard is
an old European variety is substantiated.
Späte Zwetsche Von Karlstadt. Species? Mentioned in Mathieu
Nom. Pom. 450. 1889.
Speckled Gage. Domestica. 1. N. Y. Sta. An. Rpt. 7:92. 1888.
Originated as a sucker from trees secured in Montreal by James
Tobias. Fruit small, round, purplish, speckled with conspicuous dots;
very sweet; good.
Speer. Americana. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:42. 1892. 2. Colo. Sta.
Bul. 50:45. 1898. 3. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 305. 1898.
Found wild by J. A. Speer, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Tree small, very
hardy, spreading, productive, apt to overbear; fruit medium or
below, irregular-oval to oblong; suture distinct; cavity shallow; stem
short, slender; purplish-red on a yellow ground; dots numerous,
small; bloom heavy; flesh yellow, firm and sweet; good; stone large,
oval, flat, ends blunt, semi-clinging; medium late.
Spicer. Munsoniana. 1. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:56. 1900.
Originated with Charles Luedloff of Minnesota; according to the
above reference of no value in British Columbia.
Spilling Jaune-double. Insititia. 1. Knoop Fructologie 2:63. 1771.
Except in its larger size and poorer quality this variety closely
resembles the White Wheat.
Splendid. Americana. 1. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:288. 1900. 2. Kerr Cat. 6.
1900.
Found wild by I. K. Teeter near Magnolia, Harrison County, Iowa,
in 1878; introduced by J. W. Kerr in 1900. Tree dwarfish, bears early,
productive; fruit medium in size, dark red; skin tough; flesh yellow,
very firm, sweet; good; semi-clinging; medium to late.
Splendor. Domestica. 1. Burbank Cat. 15 fig. 1893. 2. Cal. State
Bd. Hort. Rpt. 47. 1897-98. 3. Am. Gard. 21:36. 1900. 4. U.
S. D. A. Yearbook 274, Pl. XXXVI. 1903.
Cross-bred Prune A.P.-318 1.
Splendor was originated by Luther Burbank in 1886 from a cross
between Pond and Agen. In 1893 it was sold under the name Cross-
bred Prune A.P.-318 to Stark Brothers of Louisiana, Missouri, who
introduced it the following year under its present name. The fruit is
twice the size of Agen, ovoid, compressed, dark purple; bloom
heavy; flesh yellow, rich, sweet; freestone; hangs well to the tree
and ripens its crop all together.
Spotted Gage. Domestica. 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 949. 1869.
Tree vigorous, very productive; fruit medium or above, oval;
suture shallow; greenish-yellow shaded, mottled and splashed with
crimson and lilac; dots numerous, light; bloom thin; flesh coarse,
yellow, sugary, juicy, a little vinous; good; semi-clinging; mid-season.
Springer. Americana. 1. Wis. Sta. Bul. 87:8. 1901. 2. Wis. Hort.
Soc. Rpt. 91, 94. 1901.
Found wild by Wm. A. Springer of Fremont, Wisconsin; sent to the
Wisconsin Experiment Station in 1890 and named by Professor E. S.
Goff. Tree productive; fruit of large size, deep purplish-red shading
to yellow; dots numerous, yellow; bloom moderate; skin thick,
tender, not harsh; flesh deep yellow, sweet and rich; stone large,
thick margined, clinging; mid-season.
Stabeler Seedling. Species? 1. Elliott Fr. Book 429. 1854.
According to Elliott, an American variety; fruit medium in size,
oval, greenish-yellow with white specks; flesh yellowish, adhering to
the stone; mid-season.
Standard. Domestica. 1. Gard. Chron. 13:600. 1853. 2. McIntosh
Bk. Gard. 2:533. 1855. 3. Ann. Pom. Belge 8:25, Pl. 1860. 4.
Hogg Fruit Man. 382. 1866. 5. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 429. 1889.
Etendard d’Angleterre 5. L’Etendard De L’Angleterre 3. Standard of
England 5. Standard of England 1, 2, 4.
An English variety raised from seed about 1845 by Henry Dowling
of Woolston. Fruit above medium size, obovate; suture shallow;
stem medium; cavity small; bright red, shading to purplish-red; dots
yellow; bloom thin, violet; flesh greenish, firm, juicy, brisk flavor;
good; stone small, oval, nearly free; mid-season.
Standard. Domestica. 1. Burbank Cat. 11. 1911.
This Standard is a cross between Tragedy and Sugar recently sent
out by Luther Burbank. Professor E. J. Wickson of the College of
Agriculture at Berkeley, California, describes it as follows:
“Freestone, pit small ⅝ inch by ⅝ inch. Flesh yellowish, melting,
fine-grained; very juicy and sweet; skin dark blue, sub-color dark
red, medium texture.”
Stark Green Gage. Domestica. 1. Bailey Ann. Hort. 196. 1891. 2.
Stark Bros. Cat. 1891.
Stark Green Gage is said to be a seedling of Missouri Green Gage;
introduced by Stark Brothers in 1891. As tested at this Station both
of these varieties are identical with Imperial Gage.
Steinman. Americana. 1. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:59. 1897. 2. Ia. Sta.
Bul. 46:288. 1900. 3. Ibid. 114:144. 1910.
Steinman No. 2, 3.
Of the type of Stoddard, originated in 1883 by C. Steinman,
Mapleton, Iowa, from a mixed lot of seed of De Soto, Quaker and
Forest Garden. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, oval, conical,
one-sided; stem short; suture distinct; apex pointed; crimson with
numerous dots; bloom thick; skin thin; flesh yellow, watery, sweet;
good to very good; stone medium, oval, pointed; late.
Stella. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 6. 1900. 2. Waugh Plum Cult. 164.
1901.
Grown by Theodore Williams of Benson, Nebraska. Tree spreading,
very productive; fruit large, globular, purplish-red; season medium.
Steptoe. Domestica. 1. Oregon Sta. Bul. 45:31. 1897. 2. Mich. Sta.
Bul. 152:211. 1898. 3. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 548. 1901.
Originated with Calvin Throop near Steptoe Butte, Washington;
introduced by George Purdy, Colfax, Washington. Tree upright,
vigorous, bears every year; fruit resembles Italian Prune very much
but is larger and ripens two weeks earlier; ovate, purple; bloom thin;
flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet, pleasant.
Sterling. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 12. 1898.
Cataloged by J. W. Kerr for three years; not described.
Stickney. Species? 1. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:60. 1897.
A tender-fleshed variety of the season and size of Rollingstone,
grown by Franklin Johnson of Baraboo, Wisconsin.
Stint. Domestica. 1. Garden 52:261. 1897. 2. Can. Exp. Farm Bul.
2nd Ser. 3:56. 1900. 3. Garden 62:133. 1902. 4. Mathieu
Nom. Pom. 450. 1889.
Stintpflaume 4.
Introduced by Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England, in
1885. Tree dwarfish, very productive; fruit small, roundish, red or
reddish-purple; flesh orange, juicy, sweet, fine; good; stone free;
early.
Stonewood. Domestica. 1. Mag. Hort. 9:165. 1843.
Listed in the catalog of the London Horticultural Society. Fruit of
medium size, roundish, purple; good; freestone; mid-season.
Stout. Domestica. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894.
An inferior blue variety originated by Mr. Stout of Kent County,
Delaware; tested by J. W. Kerr.
Strawberry. Angustifolia watsoni. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:65. 1892.
2. Waugh Plum Cult. 234. 1901.
Tree dwarf, symmetrical, much subject to twig-blight. Fruit small,
roundish; cavity shallow; stem slender; skin thin, red; bloom thin;
flesh yellow, soft; quality poor; stone roundish, clinging.
Striped-leaved. Domestica? 1. Forsyth Treat. Fr. Trees 21. 1803.
Mentioned by Forsyth as one of the sorts commonly grown in
England in his time.
Sucker State. Hortulana. 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:50, 87. 1892. 2.
Col., O., Hort. Soc. Rpt. 82. 1892. 3. Waugh Plum Cult. 182.
1901.
The origin of this variety is not known, but it is thought to have
come from Illinois. Tree vigorous, fairly productive; fruit medium or
above, round-oblong; suture a line; cavity shallow; stem slender;
dark red; dots numerous, small, yellow; bloom very thin or lacking;
skin thick; flesh yellow, firm; good; stone of medium size, clinging;
late.
Suisse. Domestica. 1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:82. 1768. 2. Forsyth
Treat. Fr. Trees 21. 1803. 3. Prince Pom. Man. 2:63. 1832. 4.
Downing Fr. Trees Am. 949. 1869. 5. Hogg Fruit Man. 726.
1884. 6. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 450. 1889.
Altesse 3, 5, 6. La Prune Suisse 2. Monsieur Tardif 4, 5, 6.
Monsieur Tardive 3, 4. Prune d’Altesse 4, 6. Prune de Monsieur
Tardive 3. Prune Suisse 1. Prune Suisse 3, 4. Swiss Plum 3, 4, 6.
Semiana 6. Simiana 4. Schweizer Pflaume 6. Switzer’s Plum 4, 5, 6.
An old European variety known under many names. In the French
nurseries, it has been badly confused with the Blue Impératrice so
common in England. Tree vigorous and productive; fruit small, oval,
dark purple shading to dark red; bloom heavy; flesh greenish-yellow,
juicy and melting; good; clingstone; late.
Sultan. Domestica. 1. Jour. Hort. 21:243. 1871. 2. Flor. and Pom.
145. Pl. 1875. 3. Hogg Fruit Man. 727. 1884.
 Raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from seed of
Belle, about 1871. Tree vigorous, very productive; fruit medium to
large, round with a deep suture; stem medium; cavity wide; deep
red; bloom thick; flesh greenish-yellow, firm, juicy, brisk and
pleasant; clingstone; early mid-season; said to be an excellent
culinary plum.
Sultaneck Erick. Species? Mentioned in Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451.
1889.
Sunrise. Domestica. 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 78. 1897.
Exhibited by C. C. Stirling, Grand Rapids, Michigan, at the meeting
of the American Pomological Society in 1897. Fruit of medium size,
round, yellow and lilac; of the Reine Claude type.
Sunrise. Americana. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 102. 1902. 2. Can.
Exp. Farm Bul. 43:32. 1903.
A seedling of De Soto from the Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada. Fruit large, oval; cavity narrow, shallow, abrupt;
suture distinct, but not depressed; apex rounded; yellow more or
less covered with bright red; dots few, yellow, distinct; bloom
medium; skin thick, moderately tough; flesh deep yellow, juicy,
sweet; good; stone large, flat, oval, free or nearly so; late.
Sunset. Americana. 1. Colo. Sta. Bul. 50:46. 1898. 2. Ia. Sta. Bul.
46:289. 1900.
Originated by Charles E. Pennock of Bellevue, Colorado, in 1892.
Tree vigorous, hardy, very productive; fruit large, oval or oblong;
suture distinct; stem rather long, slender; deep red on a yellow
ground, beautifully shaded; flesh firm, of excellent quality; mid-
season.
Surpasse Monsieur. Domestica. 1. Prince Pom. Man. 2:63. 1832.
2. Noisette Man. Comp. Jard. 2:498. 1860. 3. Le Bon Jard.
341. 1882.
A hybrid between Monsieur and Jerusalem raised by M. Noisette of
Paris; first fruited in 1819. Tree very vigorous; fruit above medium
size, round, purplish-black; flesh yellow, a trifle harsh; excellent;
mid-season.
Svedske Tidlig Leipziger. Domestica. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat.
153. 1831.
Grown in the gardens of the London Horticultural Society prior to
1831.
Svedske Ungersk. Domestica. Listed in Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 153.
1831.
Swan. Domestica. 1. Rivers Cat. 35. 1898. 2. Can. Exp. Farm Bul.
2nd Ser. 3:56. 1900.
Raised by Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England. Tree very
productive; fruit large, red; freestone; mid-season.
Swan Golden. Domestica. 1. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:56.
1900. 2. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 548. 1901. 3. Ibid. 433. 1905.
Swan 3. Swan’s Yellow 2.
Found only in the preceding reports. Fruit of medium size,
roundish; suture distinct; cavity small; stem short; yellow; flesh
yellow, juicy, sweet, tender; stone small, mid-season.
Sweet Damson. Insititia. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 146. 1831. 2.
Mag. Hort. 9:163. 1843.
An English variety similar to Shropshire except in its sweetness.
Swift. Americana. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 119. 1904.
A seedling of De Soto grown at the Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada. Fruit large, broad-oval, much flattened; cavity
narrow, shallow; suture a line; apex slightly flattened; yellow,
mottled and washed with deep red; dots obscure; bloom light; skin
thick, moderately tough; flesh pale yellow, juicy, sweet, pleasant;
stone above medium, oval, almost free.
Szillassy Piros. Domestica. 1. Mich. Sta. Bul. 152:211. 1898.
 Noted in the preceding reference as a variety imported from
Hungary.
Tardive de Corny. Species? 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451. 1889. 2.
Guide Prat. 155, 366. 1895.
This variety is a seedling grown by Victor Simon of Corny, Metz,
France. Tree rather small in trunk, but forms a large head, regularly
productive; fruit of medium size, roundish, clear yellow blushed with
red; bloom thin; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, sweet and aromatic; good;
late.
Tardive de Fourqueux. Species? 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451.
1889.
Mathieu took his references from the Journal de la Société
Nationale et Centrale d’Horticulture de France 169. 1885.
Tardive de Genes. Domestica. 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451. 1889.
2. Guide Prat. 162, 366. 1895.
An Italian variety noted for its size, lateness and color. Tree
vigorous, productive; fruit very large, roundish-oval, yellow; flesh
firm, sour; very late.
Tardive Musquee. Domestica. 1. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:147. 1873. 2.
Cat. Cong. Pom. France 370. 1887. 3. Rev. Hort. 536, 561.
1893. 4. Lucas Vollst. Hand. Obst. 470. 1894.
Späte Muskateller Pflaume 4.
Originated by M. M. Baltet, a nurseryman at Troyes, France, about
1859. Tree weak, productive; fruit medium to above, round-oval with
an indistinct suture, very deep purple; bloom thick; flesh greenish,
melting, with aroma of musk; good; mid-season. This may be the
Late Muskatelle of Lucas.
Tarleton. Cerasifera. 1. Kerr Cat. 21. 1897. 2. Vt. Sta. An. Rpt.
13:370. 1900.
Waugh says this variety, which comes from Georgia, is very similar
to Early Cherry. Tree vigorous, spreading and irregular in growth;
fruit small, round; suture indistinct; stem medium, set in a shallow
cavity; red; bloom thin; flesh yellow, soft, sweet; quality fair; stone
small, clinging; very early.
Tatge. Domestica. 1. Penin. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 12. 1892. 2. Ia. Hort.
Soc. Rpt. 76. 1895. 3. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:289. 1900. 4. Budd-
Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 326. 1903. 5. Ohio Sta. Bul.
162:258. 1905.
Tatge is said to have originated at Belle Plains, Benton County,
Iowa. In 1892, J. W. Kerr of Maryland mentioned this plum as a new
variety, brought to notice about 1890. Tatge is so similar to the
Lombard that many authorities have noted them as identical. J. L.
Budd of Iowa considered it somewhat hardier and less subject to rot.
Tawny. Domestica. 1. Ray Hist. Plant. 2:1528. 1688.
Given by Ray in a list of the best sorts of plums cultivated in his
time.
Taybank. Domestica. 1. Mag. Hort. 12:341. 1846. 2. McIntosh Bk.
Gard. 2:532. 1855. 3. Hogg Fruit Man. 727. 1884.
Guthries Taybank 1, 2, 3.
Grown by Charles Guthrie, of Taybank, Dundee, Scotland;
probably an offspring of Reine Claude. Fruit nearly large, ovate;
suture faint; stem medium, inserted almost without a depression;
greenish-yellow with specks of russety-red on the sunny side; flesh
yellow, juicy, tender, melting, very sweet, approaching Reine Claude
in flavor but not equal to that variety; clingstone; mid-season.
Tecumseh. Americana. 1. Kerr Cat. 13. 1897. 2. Can. Exp. Farm
Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:52. 1900.
Hughes Late 1.
J. W. Pool of Indiana who introduced this plum named it Hughes
Late but later changed the name to avoid confusion with the variety
named Hughes. Fruit medium in size, round, yellow mottled with
bright red changing to coppery-red when fully ripe; clingstone; mid-
season.
Temple. Species? 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 1875-1899.
Listed by the American Pomological Society in its catalog from
1875 to 1899.
Tenneha. Species? Mentioned in Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:80. 1892.
Tennessee. Munsoniana. 1. Am. Jour. Hort. 5:148. 1869.
Tennessee Plum 1.
A strain of Wild Goose.
Terrell. Triflora ×? 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 249. 1903. 2. Glen. St.
Mary Nur. Cat. 1904.
A seedling of Excelsior from Jay Terrell, Hastings, Florida;
introduced by the Glen St. Mary Nurseries, Glen St. Mary, Florida.
Tree healthy, vigorous, similar to Excelsior, bears heavy crops
annually; fruit medium to large, nearly round; suture a line; apex
blunt; cavity medium in depth; stem short and slender; reddish-
yellow, somewhat mottled and deepening to wine-red; dots minute,
yellowish; skin thin, tough; flesh greenish-yellow, meaty, subacid,
rich; excellent; stone small, broadly oval, turgid, clinging; ripens in
June in the South.
Terry. Americana mollis. 1. Stark Bros. Cat. 1896. 2. Ia. Sta. Bul.
46:271. 1900. 3. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 224. 1902. 4. S. Dak.
Sta. Bul. 93:40. 1905.
Free Silver 2. Free Silver 1, 3, 4.
H. A. Terry of Crescent, Iowa grew this variety from seed of Van
Buren; first fruited about 1896. Tree vigorous, upright, open; fruit
large, regular, oval; cavity small, shallow; suture indistinct; dark red;
dots small, gray; bloom thin; flesh yellow, firm but melting; good;
stone large, oval, clinging; mid-season; ripens very evenly.
Terry De Soto. Americana. 1. Terry Cat. 1900. 2. Ia. Sta. Bul.
46:289. 1900.
 Terry’s Desota 1.
A seedling of De Soto, grown by H. A. Terry. Tree vigorous,
upright, productive; fruit large, golden-yellow overspread with light
crimson, mottled with darker shades; flesh yellow, rich and sweet;
clingstone; early.
Texas Belle. Munsoniana. 1. Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 34, 57. 1888. 2.
Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:50. 1892. 3. Tex. Sta. Bul. 32:481. 1894.
Belle 2. Paris Belle 1, 3.
Grown by Stephen H. Turner of Texas; introduced by Dr. W. W.
Steele of Paris, Texas. Tree small, drooping, hardy and productive;
fruit medium to large, roundish, light red; flesh yellow, firm, sweet
and pleasant; stone short and turgid, clinging; last of June in Texas.
Mentioned in the catalog of the American Pomological Society in
1897.
Texas Gage. Domestica. 1. Tex. Sta. Bul. 32:484. 1894.
Noted in the preceding reference as having been grown at the
Texas Experiment Station.
Thanksgiving. Domestica. 1. Green Cat. 8. 1902. 2. W. N. Y. Hort.
Soc. Rpt. 25. 1904.
Thanksgiving Prune 1.
Thanksgiving originated with a Mr. Gridley of Chili, New York;
introduced in 1902 by Charles A. Green of Rochester, New York. Fruit
of medium size, oval; suture distinct; purplish-black; sweet; good;
late; shrivels and keeps for some time after picking.
Theresa. Domestica? 1. U. S. D. A. Rpt. 264. 1892. 2. Am. Pom.
Soc. Rpt. 74. 1895.
Originated at Bloomingburgh, Ohio; named for Mrs. Theresa M.
Morris of that place. Tree bears heavily and regularly, hardy; fruit of
medium size, roundish-oval, reddish-purple; bloom heavy; flesh
yellowish-green, very mild, sweet; good; early.
Thomas. Domestica. 1. Mag. Hort. 7:388. 1841. 2. Downing Fr.
Trees Am. 315. 1845. 3. Mag. Hort. 14:155. 1848. 4. Hovey
Fr. Am. 1:95. 1851. 5. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 439. 1881.
Thomaspflaume 5.
Found in the garden of Wm. Thomas of Boston for whom it was
named by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; first fruited about
1840. Tree vigorous, productive, bears early; fruit large, roundish-
oval inclined to oblong; suture shallow with sides unequal; cavity
small and narrow; stem medium, rather stout; deep amber mottled
and shaded with soft red; dots white, numerous, bloom thin; flesh
yellow; juicy, somewhat coarse with a mild pleasant flavor; quality
medium; stone rather large, roundish-ovate, light in color, free; mid-
season.
Thomas October. Domestica? 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 85. 1854.
Said to have originated in Upper Dublin Township, Montgomery
County, Pennsylvania. Fruit medium in size, pale red; good.
Thompsons Golden Green. Species? 1. Country Gent. 26:238.
1865.
From R. O. Thompson, Nebraska. Fruit bronze or gold in color,
dotted with red in the sun; very sweet, juicy; freestone.
Thorndyke Gage. Domestica. 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 950. 1869.
Originated near Newburgh, New York. Tree moderately vigorous;
fruit below medium size, roundish; suture slight; pale green; flesh
greenish, juicy, sweet, pleasant; clingstone; good; mid-season.
Thousand-and-one. Munsoniana. 1. Kerr Cat. 1894. 2. Waugh
Plum Cult. 189. 1901.
Origin unknown. Fruit small, round; suture indistinct; cavity small;
bright red with many small, conspicuous dots; flesh yellow, soft;
stone small, oval, clinging; mid-season or earlier.
Thresher. Domestica. 1. Pioneer Nur. Cat. 1900.
An improved strain of Agen grown by a Mr. Thresher of California.
Throop. Domestica. 1. Mich. Sta. Bul. 152:211. 1898. 2. Can. Exp.
Farms Rpt. 547. 1901. 3. Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul. 27:16. 1904.
From George E. Ruedy, Colfax, Washington, in 1896. Tree
vigorous, upright, productive; fruit of medium size, ovate; cavity
small; suture shallow; dark purple; bloom thin; flesh yellow, firm,
coarse, sweet, pleasant; quality fair; freestone; mid-season.
Throop No. 1. Domestica. 1. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:57.
1900.
Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, oval; suture broad, distinct;
cavity usually lacking; red with thin bloom; flesh yellow, firm, juicy,
sweet, rich; stone roundish, free; early.
Throop No. 2. Domestica. 1. Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul. 27:16. 1904.
Tree vigorous, unproductive; fruit large, roundish; sides unequal;
suture broad; cavity small; reddish-purple; bloom heavy; dots few,
yellow; flesh greenish-yellow, firm, a little coarse, sweet; good;
stone semi-clinging; mid-season.
Throssel. Americana. 1. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:290. 1900.
Found wild on the Des Moines River by a Mr. Throssel, Pierson,
Woodbury County, Iowa. Tree vigorous, hardy; fruit large; suture
distinct; late.
Tillemond. Domestica. 1. Prince Pom. Man. 2:93. 1832.
Belle Tillemond 1. Prunier de Tillemond 1.
Fruit very large, oval; cavity slight; stem large; light purple, with a
darker cheek; flesh greenish, somewhat melting, sharp and acid, not
pleasant; late.
Tobias Gage. Domestica. 1. N. Y. Sta. Rpt. 12:612. 1893.
Tobias Gage is a supposed seedling of Reine Claude received for
testing at this Station in 1888 from J. T. Macomber, Grand Isle,
Vermont. Tree moderately vigorous and productive; fruit below
medium in size, oblate; suture and cavity shallow; dark coppery-
yellow with a dull mottled red blush; bloom thin; flesh yellow,
slightly fibrous, firm, sweet; quality good; stone small, semi-clinging;
not equal to Reine Claude in appearance or quality.
Togo. Triflora. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt. 119. 1904.
A seedling of Red June from the Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada, from seed planted in 1895; named in honor of
Admiral Togo. Fruit above medium, roundish; suture usually
indistinct; cavity narrow, medium in depth, abrupt; yellow overlaid
with deep red, with many small, inconspicuous dots; flesh yellow,
firm, juicy, sweet; good; stone of medium size, oval, flattened,
clinging.
Tokeya. Prunus besseyi × Simonii. 1. S. Dak. Sta. Bul. 108. 1908.
One of a lot of hybrids originated at the South Dakota Experiment
Station, first fruiting in 1906. Fruit one and three-eighths inches in
diameter, flat, dark red; flesh green, sprightly subacid, intermediate
between that of the two parents; good; stone very small; early.
Tomato. Cerasifera. 1. Vt. Sta. An. Rpt. 13:370. 1900.
According to Waugh, a seedling of Pissardi, from A. L. Bruce,
Basin Springs, Texas. Fruit small to medium, spherical; cavity
shallow; stem short, slender; dark red; dots very minute; bloom
thin; flesh soft, yellow; poor to fair; stone large, oval, flattened,
clinging; mid-season.
Tomlingson. Species? 1. Cornell Sta. Bul. 38:80. 1892.
Given by Bailey in a list of native plums.
Towakong. Rivularis. 1. Bailey Ev. Nat. Fruits 223. 1898.
Creek 1. Rivularis 1.
The Indian name of Prunus rivularis.
Trabesche. Domestica. 1. Ia. Sta. Bul. 28:231. 1895. 2. Ibid.
31:348. 1895.
Trabeshe 2.
 A Russian variety introduced into this country by Charles Gibb;
tested at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. Tree hardy, bears
early; fruit large, oval, blue; quality best; freestone; mid-season.
Transparente. Species? 1. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort. 406. 1881.
2. Guide Prat. 157, 366. 1895.
Durchsichtige 1. Die Durchsichtige 2. Frühe Gelbe Reine Claude 2.
Distinct from the English variety, Transparent. Fruit of medium
size, oval clear greenish-yellow; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, aromatic;
good; clingstone; early.
Trapps Königspflaume. Domestica. 1. Oberdieck Deut. Obst. Sort.
423. 1881. 2. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451. 1889.
Königspflaume von Trapp’s 1. Royale de Trapp 2. Von Trapp’s
Königs Pflaume 2.
Produced by Liegel. Tree vigorous; fruit medium in size, oblate;
suture shallow; halves equal or nearly so; stem with short hairs;
cavity wide, deep; skin easily removed, sourish; bluish-black; dots
fine, numerous, golden; bloom thick; flesh greenish-yellow, fine,
juicy, sprightly, pleasant; freestone; ripens before the Reine Claude.
Traubenpflaume. Species? 1. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451. 1889.
Usum Erreck 1.
Reference found by Mathieu in Obst-Garten 47. 1885.
Trauttenberg. Domestica. 1. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:81. 1873. 2.
Mathieu Nom. Pom. 453. 1889.
Die Zuckersüsse 2. König Zwetsche 2. Sucree de Trauttenberg 2.
Sucree-Douce De Trauttenberg 1, 2. Trauttenberg Zuckersüsse 1.
Von Trauttenberg’s Zuckersüsse 2.
Originated in Bohemia; named in honor of Baron Trauttenberg, a
zealous pomologist. Fruit medium in size, obovate and flattened;
suture a line; skin brownish-purple; bloom thick; flesh yellowish-
green, juicy, very rich, aromatic; excellent for dessert; stone rough,
free; mid-season.
Trianon. Domestica. Listed in Lond. Hort Soc. Cat. 153. 1831.
Trinkle No. 4. Triflora. 1. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 135. 1905.
John W. Trinkle of Madison, Indiana, grew this plum from seed of
Burbank about 1897. Tree vigorous, spreading; fruit large; suture
medium; apex small; cavity large, regular, deep; yellowish; dots
small, yellow; skin thick, tenacious, bitter; flesh yellowish, slightly
translucent, meaty, moderately juicy, mild subacid; good to very
good; mid-season.
Trostle. Species? 1. Waugh Plum Cult. 234. 1901.
Known only in the vicinity of Kingsley, Iowa. Fruit dark red.
Trouvée de Vouêche. Species? 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 398.
1857. 2. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 451. 1889.
Trouvée de Vaunêge 2. Trouvée de Vonêche 2.
Found wild by Gregoire (probably of Belgium) and introduced by
him. Tree moderately vigorous; fruit medium to small, oval, regular,
reddish-violet with a darker cheek; bloom violet; flesh juicy, sweet;
very good; mid-season.
Truro. Americana × Hortulana mineri. 1. U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt. 47.
1895. 2. Waugh Plum Cult. 164. 1901.
From Ezra W. Tucker, Williamsfield, Illinois, about 1895. A seedling
of Weaver crossed with Miner. Tree upright, hardy; fruit large,
oblong; suture shallow; cavity small, shallow; red with many, small,
russet dots; flesh yellowish with yellow veins, tender, melting, juicy,
mild subacid; very good; stone medium, oval, clinging; late.
Tucker. Species? 1. U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt. 26. 1894.
Another seedling from Ezra W. Tucker; said to be grown from seed
taken from a cluster of trees containing Weaver, Miner, Wild Goose
and two prune trees; first fruited in 1894. Tree resembles Wild
Goose; fruit medium to large, pyriform, greenish-yellow, overspread
with light purplish-red; dots many, small; skin thick, tender, almost
sweet; very good; stone large, angular, clinging; mid-season.
Tudor. Munsoniana? 1. Tex. Sta. Bul. 32:481. 1894.
Tested at the Texas Experiment Station. Tree vigorous and
productive; fruit above medium size, oblong, light red; skin very
thin; flesh acid unless fully ripe.
Turkey. Domestica. 1. Parkinson Par. Ter. 576, 577. 1629. 2. Rea
Flora 208. 1676. 3. Ray Hist. Plant. 2:1529. 1688. 4. Langley
Pomona 95, 97, Pl. XXV fig. V. 1729. 5. Abercrombie Gard.
Ass’t 13. 1786.
Turkie 1. Turky 2. Turkey Plumb 4.
From the brief descriptions of the Seventeenth Century writers, it
appears that Turkey was a large blue plum of the German Prune
type but the variety has either long since been buried under the
hosts of new sorts that have been developed or a new name has
been given it.
Turkish Prune. Domestica. 1. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 152. 1831. 2.
R. G. Chase Cat. 3. Rice Bros. Cat. 1908.
Quetsche Turkish 1.
The name “Turkish Prune,” although sometimes applied to the
Italian Prune does not seem to be connected with any particular
variety. It may be a synonym of the “Jerusalem Prune” or it may
have developed, as a corruption of the still older “Turkey” plum
mentioned by Parkinson and other writers in the Seventeenth
Century.
Twice Bearing. Domestica. 1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:113. 1768.
2. Prince Pom. Man. 2:103. 1832. 3. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat.
144. 1831. 4. Poiteau Pom. Franc. 1:1846. 5. Mas Le Verger
6:79. 1866-73. 6. Nicholson Dict. Gard. 3:235. 7. Mathieu
Nom. Pom. 455. 1889.
 Bifere 2, 7. Bifere 5. Bon deux fois l’an? 2. Bonne deux fois l’an 3.
De Deux Saison 5. Deux fois l’an 2. P. biferum 6. Prune bifere 2.
Prune de Deux Saisons 2, 7. Prune qui fructifie deux fois l’an 5, 7.
Prunier bifere 4. Prunier Fleurissant et Poussant Deux Fois 5, 7.
Prunier qui fructifie deux fois par an 1, 2. Prunus bifera 1. Zweimal
Blühende und Zweimal Tragende Bunte Pflaume 5, 7. Zweimal
Tragende 7.
A Domestica of ancient origin grown more as a curiosity and an
ornamental than for utility. Fruit long, almost olive-form; suture
faint; skin reddish-yellow, heavily tinged with brown; bloom heavy;
flesh coarse, yellow, green beneath the suture, juice insipid; stone
almost smooth, acutely pointed, clinging. The first crop is borne the
beginning of August; the second very late; both worthless.
Twins. Domestica. 1. Montreal Hort. Soc. Rpt. 55. 1878.
Corse’s Twins 1.
A curious double plum which originated with Henry Corse,
Montreal, Canada; inferior.
Tzaueron. Insititia? 1. Rev. Hort. 357. 1891.
Le Prunier Tzaneron 1. Tzaneron 1.
Very generally grown throughout southeastern Europe. Tree below
medium size; branches upright; leaves small; glabrous, oval, deep
green in color; fruit grows in clusters, small, pale yellow; flesh firm,
juicy, sprightly, refreshing. This variety is an important commercial
sort in the country where it is grown.
Ulysses. Domestica. 1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 950. 1869.
From western New York; fruit above medium size, roundish-oval,
whitish, shaded and mottled with violet-purple; bloom thin; flesh
yellow, juicy, sweet; good; clingstone; mid-season.
Uncle Ben. Domestica? 1. Gard. and For. 7:243. 1894. 2. Kansas
“The Plum” 29. 1900.
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