SCIENCE NOTES

(Third Quarter)

[ NOTE ] These exam notes are confidential and intended solely for my use and the use of
those individuals with whom I explicitly share them. Unauthorized access or distribution is
a violation of academic integrity.

Owner: Mark Paul C. Secretaria

From: 10 – Special Program in Science, Technology, and Engineering (BETA)

LEGEND:
HEADTITLE
TITLES
SUBTITLES
TERMS
KEYWORDS/PHRASES OF DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLES
NUMBERS/SIZE

Lesson #3.1: Nervous System

• What is the Nervous System?

- connects all your body
parts and transmits signals from one part to
another
- a system of cells, tissues, and organs that
regulates the bodies responses to internal and
external stimuli
- each part of the nervous system has a specific
role as it functions as an important part of a
system

• Major Divisions and Parts of Nervous System

> Central Nervous System - serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system
> Two Main Components of CNS
1. Brain - an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of
information for the body.
> Three Main Parts of the Brain
1.1 Cerebrum - large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought (the largest part
of the brain)

1.2 Cerebellum - the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance, and coordination
1.3 Brain Stem - the part that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls automatic
functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure
2. Spinal Cord - serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and
controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without input from the brain.
- an automatic response to your environment is called a reflex
- in some reflex actions, the actions of the skeletal muscles are controlled by the spinal cord only
—not the brain
> Peripheral Nervous System - connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs.

> Two Main Parts of PNS

1. Cranial Nerves - the nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
2. Spinal Nerves - the nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and
the body.
> Two Main Divisions of PNS
1. Somatic Nervous System - this system is associated with the voluntary control of body
movements. (e.g., finger heart, chewing, skeletal muscles, and jumping)
2. Autonomic Nervous System - this system is associated with the involuntary control of body
movements. (e.g., heart contraction, glands, digestion, and yawning)
> Two Subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
1. Sympathetic - activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress (e.g., increased heart
rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, etc.) (fight-or-flight, sweating, rapid breathing, and
urination)
2. Parasympathetic - maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode
(e.g., salivation, rest and digest, heart rate slows, and pupil constriction)

Nerve Cells - the basic unit of the nervous system and these cells are called “neurons”
Neurons carry signals or impulses; a nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a
chemical reaction (electrochemical)
Dendrites - carry impulses towards the cell body
Axons - carry impulses awayfrom the cell body; a nerve impulse cannot jump from one neuron
to another. When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it produces the chemical, called
neurotransmitter, to be released. The chemical crosses the space between neurons called synapse
and stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite.
Lesson #3.2: Endocrine System

• What is Endocrine System?

- a network of glands in the body that produces and releases hormones
- hormones are chemical messenger; they travel all throughout our body through our
bloodstreams

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

• GLANDS AND ITS HORMONES

1. Pineal Gland - located deep within the brain, between the two hemispheres, and just
above the brain stem, behind the hypothalamus; responsible for melatonin production, and the
one managing our body clock and sleep pattern; it also has something to do with mood.
> Melatonin - released in response to darkness and helps the body prepare for sleep; melatonin
levels are higher at night, and the hormone signals the body to relax and lower its temperature
2. Hypothalamus - located at the base of your brain; serves as a vital control center because the
hormones it creates controls other glands to produce their hormones; also, it has major
role on the “love” we feel, by signaling the release of oxytocin and its access to brain’s reward
system
3. Pituitary Gland - located at the base of your brain, behind the bridge of your nose; as the
“master gland”, it stimulates growth, and controls the functions of other glands
> Oxytocin - the “cuddle” hormone; plays a key role in social bonding, childbirth, and
breastfeeding; released in response to various stimuli like touch, warmth, and emotional
connection; promotes feelings of trust, intimacy, and maternal behavior
> Vasopressin - the “water-conserving” hormone; responsible for various processes in our body;
enables our kidneys to reabsorb water from our urine, narrows our blood vessels when
blood pressure drops, and maintains blood osmolarity
> Somatotropin - the “growth” hormone; essential for our body to grow, and to repair it when it’s
damaged
> Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - commands the adrenal
glands to produce cortisol
> Prolactin - the “milk” hormone; essential for upcoming mothers because of its purpose of
signaling the breast to enlarge and produce milk
> Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - works differently in males and females. In males, it regulates the
production of testosterone, while in females, it regulates the production of estrogen and
progesterone
> Follicle Stimulating Hormone ( FSH) - stimulates the production of sperm cells, and the
growth of ovarian follicles, producers of egg cells
4. Thyroid Gland - located in the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple, and just above
the collarbones; also known as the “butterfly gland”, it regulates body metabolism, and causes
storage of calcium in bones
> Thyroxin - responsible for the rate of how fast or slow calories are burned; it also helps
breaking down glucose that we eat into energy
> Calcitonin - the “bone-sparing” hormone; helps regulate the levels of calcium in your blood
when it gets too high
5. Parathyroid Gland - located just at the back of the thyroid gland; produces parathyroid
hormone which helps with the regulation of calcium in our blood
> Parathormone (PTH) - signals the bones to give out calcium, signals the intestines to absorb
more calcium from what we eat when the calcium levels in our blood is low
6. Thymus Gland - located in the upper chest, just behind the breastbone, and between the
lungs; enables the body to produce certain antibodies
> Thymosin - regulates the development of T cells - its maturation, as well as terminating it. It
ensures that the T cells are trained in identification and combat of pathogens
7. Adrenal Gland - located on the top of each kidney; prepares the body for “fight-or-flight”
responses, controls the heart rate and breathing in times of emergency
> Cortisol - essential in breaking down of the food we eat for energy, producing sugar
when our body needs it, and controls our immune system from overreacting
> Adrenaline - plays a crucial role of fight or flight response when we are faced with danger or
stress; increases our heart rate, raise blood pressure, dilates air passageways, and enhanced
mental alertness
8. Pancreas - located below the stomach, in the middle of both kidneys; prooduces hormones that
regulates blood sugar levels
> Insulin - when our blood has high sugar level, insulin signals the cells, particularly the muscles
and liver, to store the excess sugar. It is also the reason why people get chubby
> Glucagon - the opposite of insulin, glucagon signals the
release of store sugar into our blood stream when it has low sugar level
9. Testes - located outside the body within the scrotum; control maturation and male
characteristics
> Testosterone - the primary sexual hormone; responsible for the development of primary
sexual characteristics (penis, testes) and secondary sexual characteristics (low voice, facial hair);
also responsible for sperm production
> Androgen - steroid hormones that regulate male sexual development and reproductive function
10. Ovaries - located on each side of a woman's lower abdomen, near the opening of the
fallopian tubes; influence female traits, and support reproductive function
> Estrogen - works together with progesterone on menstrual cycle, while focusing more on the
development primary and secondary sexual characteristics; also promotes the maturation
of egg cell
> Progesterone - works together with estrogen on menstrual cycle, while focusing more on
supporting pregnancy, regulating fertility, and modulating mood

• FEEDBACK MECHANISM
- the process through which the level of one substance influences the level of another substance
> Positive Feedback
- a pathway that causes an effect that exceeds far beyond the state of homeostasis. It amplifies
part of a physiological system that is already outside the homeostatic range
e.g. 1. CHILDBIRTH
- The release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland during labor is an example of positive
feedback mechanism. Oxytocin stimulates the muscle contractions that push the baby through
the birth canal. The release of oxytocin results in stronger or augmented contractions during
labor. The contractions intensify and increase until the baby is outside the birth canal. When the
stimulus to the pressure receptors ends, oxytocin production stops and labor contractions cease.
e.g. 2. BLOODCLOTTING - When a wound causes bleeding, substances released by the injured
blood vessel wall begin the process of blood clotting. Platelets in the blood start to cling to the
injured site and release chemicals that attract additional platelets. As the platelets continue to
amass, more of the chemicals are released and more platelets are attracted to the site of the
clot. The positive feedback accelerates the process of clotting until the clot is large enough to
stop the bleeding.
> Negative Feedback
- serves to reduce an excessive response and keep a variable within the normal range. This can be
a stimulatory or inhibitory effect

e.g. 1. BLOOD GLUCOSE - If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range, pancreatic
beta cells release the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin signals cells to take up the
excess glucose from the blood until the level of blood glucose decreases to the normal range.
If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range, pancreatic alpha cells release the
hormone glucagon into the bloodstream. Glucagon signals cells to break down stored glycogen
to glucose and release the glucose into the blood until the level of blood glucose increases to
the normal range.
e.g. 2. BODY TEMPERATURE
> Cooling Down - When the hypothalamus receives data from sensors in the skin, it sets the
blood vessels to dilate, allowing more blood to flow close to the surface of the body, so heat can
be radiated. As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands in the skin are activated to increase
their output of sweat where it evaporates, and it takes the heat with it.
> Heating Up - When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that
body temperature is lower than the setpoint, it sets blood vessels in the skin contract to prevent
blood from flowing close to the surface of the body. This reduces heat loss from the surface.
Moreover, random signals to skeletal muscles are triggered, causing them to shiver, which
generates heat.
• Homeostasis is the state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with
othher parts. This is attained through the regulation of the bodily functions by the endocrine
andnervous systems.

• Goiter - there is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland due to too much or too little
amount of secreted hormone.
• Obesity - some people become obese even if they do not eat a lot of food because of a
hormonal dysfunction in thyroid gland related to metabolism.
• Diabetes - it happens when your blood sugar is too high. It develops when your pancreas
doesn't make enough insulin.
• Osteoporosis - it is caused by abnormal interactions of the hormones released by thyroid and
parathyroid gland related to bone growth and calcium storage.
• Dwarfism - there is too little secretion of growth hormones by the pituitary gland, thus
resulting to stunted growth.
• Gigantism - there is an excessive secretion of growth hormones by the pituitary gland causing
too much growth to the person.

Lesson #3.3: Reproductive System

• What is Reproductive System?

- system involved in sexual
reproduction
- consists primarily of reproductive organs called gonads –
testes in the male and ovaries in the female
- gonads (1) produce reproductive cells called gametes – spermatozoa in males and ova in
females, the process is called gametogenesis, and (2) secrete steroid hormones called sex
hormones – testosterone in male, and progesterone in females

• Male Reproductive System

1. Scrotum - a pouch of skin suspended from the perineal area and divided into two sacs, each
containing one testicle and epididymis; the scrotal tissue contracts in the absence of sufficient
heat, pulling the testes up closer to the body where the temperature maintains the viability of
sperm
2. Testicles/Testes - are located in the scrotum and are each divided into 250 lobules; coiled
within the lobule are seminiferous tubes where the sperm are formed
3. Ejaculatory Ducts
> Vas Deferens/Sperm Duct - a thick-walled tube joined to the epididymis; carries sperm from
the epididymis up to the prostate gland and urethra
> Urethra - a tube that extends from the bladder to the external opening at the end of the penis;
the urethra carries both urine and sperm
4. Penis - organ used for urination and sexual intercourse to eject sperm inside the vagina which
can stay alive up to 5 days; it has spongy tissues and blood vessels which can fill with blood to
cause an erection; the foreskin covers the head (glans) of the penis; it may be circumcised/
removed for hygiene or religious reasons
5. Glands
> Seminal Vesicle - secretes a fluid that makes up most of the components of the semen to
help sperm survive
> Prostate Gland - secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid as part of the semen
> Bulbourethral/Cowper’s Gland - secretes a thick and clear mucus
that lubricates and neutralizes the any trace of acidic urine in the
urethra

• FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ovaries - two ovaries are attached to each side of the uterus by a ligament; they are
oval-shaped, about the size of a large olive, and lie close to the fimbria at the end of the fallopian
tubes; each ovary is filled, already at birth, with egg-containing sacs called follicles. each egg is
called an ovum
2. Fallopian Tube/Oviduct - 4-6 inches long; the egg, released from the
ovary, is captured by the fimbria and brought into the fallopian tube; the egg can only live for 24
hours; the fallopian tube is the site for fertilization. If the egg is fertilized, it takes an egg about 3
to 4 days to travel the length of the tube
3. Uterus - a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ about the size of a woman’s clenched fist;
the mucous membrane lining of the uterus is called the endometrium; it becomes thicker so that
the fertilized egg can attach to it; the uterus provides a place for the protection and nourishment
of the fetus during pregnancy
4. Cervix - a cylinder-shaped neck of tissue that connects the vagina
and uterus; the cervical opening is about the diameter of a pencil. During childbirth, the cervix
dilates widely to allow the baby to pass through; during menstruation, the cervix opens a small
amount to permit passage of menstrual flow
5. Vagina - extends from the cervix to the outside of the body; a 3 ½ inch long muscular tube that
expands in length and width during sexual arousal; the vagina is the female organ for copulation
(sexual intercourse), receiving the seminal fluid from the male penis. It is also a passageway for
menstruation or the birth of a fetus
6. Vulva - 5 organs making up the external genitalia of the female:
6.1. Clitoris – small erectile structure lying beneath the pubic symphysis at the juncture of the
labia minora which contains many sensory neurons
6.2. Labia Majora – two prominent longitudinal folds of skin which form the lateral walls
6.3. Labia Minora – two small longitudinal folds which lie just within the labia majora
6.4. Urinary Meatus – opening of the urethra into the vestibule
6.5. Vaginal Orifice – opening to the vagina
7. Breasts - the mammary glands, varying in size according to age, heredity, and the amount of
fatty tissue present; each breast has 15-20 glandular lobes separated by connective tissue. After
childbirth, the pituitary gland stimulates these lobules with the hormone prolactin and they
produce milk; in the center is the nipple, where ducts from the lobules open

• The Menstrual Cycle

- occur first during puberty or around the ages of 10 -15 years old
- continues for about 40
years
- average menstrual cycle is
about 28 days
• The Ovarian Cycle
1. FOLLICULAR PHASE (days 1-13)
➢ It is the first part of the ovarian cycle. During this phase, the ovarian
follicles mature and get ready to release the egg.
2. OVULATION PHASE (day 14)
➢ It is the shortest phase in the cycle wherein the mature egg is released
from one of the follicles down to the Fallopian Tube.
3. LUTEAL PHASE (days 15-28)
➢ This phase is marked after the release of the mature egg. FSH and LH
cause the remaining parts of the follicle to transform into corpus luteum,
which produces progesterone.
• The Uterine Cycle
1. MENSTRUATION PHASE (days 1-7)
➢ The menses or menstrual blood, is shed from the lining of the uterus
known as the endometrium. This period usually lasts for an average of
five days.
2. PROLIFERATIVE PHASE (days 8-14)
➢ Estrogen is released by the ovarian follicles. It initiates the formation of
a new layer of endometrium in the uterus.
3. SECRETORY PHASE (days 15-28)
➢ As the corpus luteum produces progesterone, this causes the
endometrium to become receptive to implantation of the developing
zygote and supportive of the early pregnancy.
Figure 1.

Figure 2.
1. EARLY MUCUS - slight amount, thick, white, sticky, holds to its shape
2. TRANSITIONAL MUCUS - increasing amounts, thinner, coudy, slightly stretchy
3. HIGH FERTILE MUCUS - profuse, thin, transparent, stretchy

• BASAL BODY TEMPERATURE METHOD

➢ BBT = body temp in resting state on waking
➢ Slight drop immediately before ovulation
➢ After ovulation, release of progesterone causes slight increase in temperature

• FERTILIZATION - During fertilization, the sperm and egg unite in one of the fallopian
tubes to form a zygote. Then the zygote travels down the fallopian tube, where it becomes a
morula. Once it reaches the uterus, the morula becomes a blastocyst. The blastocyst then burrows
into the uterine wall —a process called implantation.

• MENOPAUSE - During menopause, a woman's ovaries stop releasing eggs. Her body produces
less of the female hormones estrogen.
➢ Most often, it is a natural, normal body change that
occurs between ages 45 to 55.
➢ It's diagnosed after you've gone 12 months without a
menstrual period.
➢ After menopause, a woman can no longer become
pregnant.

Lesson #3.4: DNA

• What is Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)?

➢ Segments of DNA that codes for a protein, which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye
color, etc.) are called genes.
➢ DNA is often called the blueprint of life as it contains the instructions for making
proteins within the cell.
➢ DNA is tightly wound into the chromosomes and cannot leave the nucleus of cells.

• BASIC FUNCTIONS OF DNA

1. Information Storage - DNA stores the genetic information that determines the characteristics
and functions of an organism.
2. Replication - DNA can make exact copies of itself, which is essential for cell division and
growth.
3. Transcription and Translation - DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into proteins,
which control cellular activities.
4. Inheritance - DNA is inherited from generation to generation and is responsible for passing
traits from parents to offspring.

• DNA STRUCTURE
➢ DNA is DOUBLE STRANDED
➢ DNA is a polymer (composed of repeating subunits called nucleotides)
➢ One nucleotide is made of 3 important things:
1. Phosphate
2. Nitrogen base
3. 5-Carbon Deoxyribose Sugar
➢ There are 4 nitrogen bases in DNA: Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine and Thymine.
➢ DNA strands are complimentary
✓Adenine pairs with Thymine (A-T or T-A)
✓Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C-G or G-C)
➢ DNA strands are held together by Hydrogen bonds
1. One strand of DNA has the base sequence T A C G A T T G A
What is the complementary strand of DNA? A T G C T A A C T
2. What is the DNA sequence complementary to the one shown? A A C T G C C T A
TTGACGGAT
3. Given the amount of Adenine in a DNA sample is 37% and the amount of Guanine is 13%,
what will be the amount of Thymine?
A. 37%
B. 13%
C. 74%
D. 50%
➢ Each strand of the double helix is oriented in the
opposite direction (“anti-parallel”)
➢ “prime” #’s refer to
carbons in the sugar
➢ At one end, the 3’ carbon has an (OH) and at the
opposite, a 5’ carbon has the PO4
➢ Leading Strand is the parent strand of DNA which runs in the 3' to
5' direction towards the replication fork
➢ Lagging strand is the strand that opens in the 5' to 3' direction
towards the replication fork
➢ DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end. A daughter strand can only grow
from 5’ to 3’ direction
• DNA REPLICATION - The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself. Cells divide for an
organism to grow or reproduce. Every new cell needs a copy of DNA. DNA replication is semi-
conservative. When it makes a copy, one half of the old strand is ALWAYS kept in the
new strand This helps reduce the number of copy errors.
➢ Helicase - “zipper”; unzips the DNA strand
➢ Primase - “primer”; tells where to begin
➢ DNA Polymerase - “builder”; adds nucleotides
➢ Ligase - “gluer”; joins DNA fragments

Lesson #3.5: RNA

• What is Ribonucleic Acid?

➢ RNA is SINGLE STRANDED and
does not have to stay in the
nucleus!
➢ RNA is not found in chromosomes
because it does not carry the
genetic code, however it can read
the DNA code and take the
information out of the nucleus.
➢ RNA’s main job is to build
proteins.

• RNA STRUCTURE
➢ The building blocks of RNA are nucleotides, just
like DNA.
➢ One nucleotide is made of 3 important things:
1. Phosphate
2. Nitrogen base
3. 5-Carbon Ribose Sugar
➢ There are 4 nitrogen bases in RNA: Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine and Uracil.
✓Adenine pairs with Uracil (A-U or U-A)
✓Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C-G or G-C)
➢ A group of 3 nitrogen bases is called a “codon”
which determines the amino acids.

• 3 TYPES OF RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) - functions in nucleus, migrates to ribosomes
in cytoplasm; carries DNA sequence information to ribosomes.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - functions in cytoplasm; structural component
of ribosomes.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) - functions in cytoplasm; provides linkage between mRNA and
amino acids; transfers amino acids to ribosomes.

• Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription - copying a gene’s DNA sequence to make an RNA molecule; occurs in the
nucleus.
3 Steps in Transcription
1.1 Initiation - RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. The RNA
polymerase signals the DNA to unwind in order to make a strand of mRNA with a
complementary sequence of bases.
1.2 Elongation
➢ RNA strand gets longer because of
the new strand
➢ RNA polymerase "walks" along one
strand of DNA, known as
the template strand, in the 3' to 5' direction
1.3 Termination
➢ RNA polymerase will keep
transcribing until it gets signals to
stop
➢ causes RNA polymerase to
dissociate from the DNA and release
the fully synthesized mRNA strand
2. Translation - when mRNA leaves the nucleus, it travels to a ribosome where it reads the chain
of codons in the strand of mRNA; then tRNA transports the corresponding amino acids to the
ribosome in the exact sequence
3 Steps in Translation
2.1 Initiation - the ribosome assembles around the mRNA to be read and the first tRNA carrying
the amino acid methionine binds to what is called the start codon AUG of the
mRNA sequence.
2.2 Elongation
➢ the mRNA is read one codon at a time,
and the amino acid matching each codon
is added to a growing protein chain
➢ The mRNA is shifted one codon over in
the ribosome, exposing a new codon for
reading
2.3 Termination
➢ the finished polypeptide chain is released
➢ it begins when a stop codon (UAG, UAA,
or UGA) enters the ribosome, triggering a
series of events that separate the chain
from its tRNA and allow it to drift out of
the ribosome

• The Genetic Code

➢ A code is needed to convert the language of mRNA into
the language of proteins.
➢ A group of three nitrogenous bases (codon) in mRNA
code for one amino acid.
➢ Sixty-four combinations are possible when a sequence of
three bases is used; thus, 64 different mRNA codons are
in the genetic code.
➢ More than one codon can code for the same amino acid.
However, for any one codon, there can be only one
amino acid.
➢ There are a total of 20 amino acids. Only 2 amino acids
are coded for by just a single codon. The other 18 amino
acids are coded for by two to six codons.

DNA Template: GCC TTT AAC GGA

mRNA: CGG AAA UUG CCU
tRNA: GCC UUU AAC GGA
Amino acid: Arginine, Lysine, Leucine, Proline

• Application Integration - Antibiotics are medicines that fight bacterial infections in people and
animals. They work by killing the bacteria or by making it hard for the bacteria to grow and
multiply.An antibiotic that stalls the ribosomes from moving will inhibit the process of protein
synthesis in the bacteria, and lead to the death of the bacteria, as no proteins are produced.