Unit I: Fundamentals of Environmental Engineering

1.1. Environmental engineering: Introduction and scope

Introduction

Environmental engineering is a vital branch of engineering focused on addressing environmental

challenges and ensuring a sustainable future. By applying scientific principles from fields like
chemistry, biology, and ecology, environmental engineers design systems that protect human health
and safeguard natural resources. This discipline is centred around reducing pollution, managing
waste, and developing sustainable infrastructure to minimize the environmental impact of human
activities.

“Environmental engineering can be defined as the application of scientific and engineering principles
to improve and protect the environment from the adverse effects of human activity.”

History of Environmental Engineering

The roots of environmental engineering date back to ancient civilizations, such as the Romans, who
constructed aqueducts and sewer systems. However, the field began to formalize during the
Industrial Revolution, as pollution and its impacts became more apparent. One of the key historical
figures was John Snow, whose work in identifying waterborne diseases set the stage for modern
water treatment methods. As the 20th century saw a rise in environmental awareness,
environmental engineering expanded to address the complex global challenges of today, such as
climate change and resource depletion.

Importance of Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering plays a vital role in:

 Protecting public health by ensuring clean air and safe drinking water, managing waste, and
controlling pollution.
 Combating climate change by developing technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and promote the use of renewable energy.
 Preserving natural resources through sustainable practices in agriculture, industry, and urban
development.
 Cleaning up polluted environments by remediating contaminated land, air, and water
systems.

Scope of Environmental Engineering

The scope of environmental engineering is vast, encompassing various fields that directly impact
both the environment and public health.

1. Water Resources and Treatment: A key area is ensuring the availability of clean drinking water and
treating wastewater before it returns to natural water bodies. Environmental engineers design water
treatment plants and systems that remove pollutants, ensuring water is safe for human
consumption.
2. Air Quality Management: Environmental engineers tackle air pollution by designing technologies
that reduce harmful emissions from industries and vehicles. They also work on improving indoor
air quality, which is important for public health.

3. Waste Management: From solid waste generated in households to hazardous industrial waste,
environmental engineers develop strategies to handle, recycle, and dispose of waste responsibly,
minimizing its impact on the environment.

4. Soil and Land Remediation: Environmental engineers play a key role in cleaning contaminated
land and ensuring that land use planning is done sustainably. Techniques like bioremediation are
used to restore ecosystems that have been damaged by pollution.

5. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Before any large infrastructure project begins, an
environmental impact assessment is conducted to understand the potential effects on the
environment. Environmental engineers evaluate these impacts and propose ways to mitigate
harm.

6. Climate Change Mitigation: Environmental engineers contribute significantly to the fight against
climate change by developing technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. They
promote renewable energy solutions and design systems to help communities adapt to changing
climates.

In conclusion, the scope of environmental engineering is both broad and impactful, spanning water
and air quality, waste management, land use, and climate action. This field plays a critical role in
balancing human progress with environmental protection, ensuring a healthier planet for future
generations. By addressing the complex environmental challenges of today, environmental engineers
are paving the way for a more sustainable and resilient world.
 1.2. Sewage and storm water drainage
Sewage Drainage
What is sewage?

Sewage is the wastewater that comes from homes, industries, and businesses. It includes water used
for flushing toilets, washing dishes, cleaning, and bathing. Sewage is mostly made up of water,
around 99% to be exact, while the remaining 1% is solid waste, which includes organic matter,
chemicals, and other debris. This small solid portion can cause significant problems if not properly
treated and managed.

Key Criteria for Designing a Sewage Drainage System:

 Presence of Solid Matter: Since sewage contains a small percentage of solid waste, it’s
crucial to design the drainage system to effectively transport both liquid and solid
components. If the system isn’t built correctly, solids could settle and cause blockages.
Proper pipe sizing and flow rates are important to prevent clogs and maintain smooth
sewage transport.
 Pressure and Flow: Sewage systems are designed to work under the force of gravity or with
pumps to maintain a steady flow of wastewater. Proper pressure ensures that sewage
doesn’t back up into homes or streets. Without the right pressure, wastewater could
stagnate, leading to foul odours and health risks. In sewage drainage perpendicular joints are
discouraged and angular joints are preferred to prevent accumulation of solid matter in the
pipes. The flow in the pipes must be fast enough to keep solids suspended in the water but
slow enough to avoid excessive wear and tear on the system.

Sewage Drainage

Sewage drainage refers to the system of pipes, pumps, and treatment plants designed to collect and
treat wastewater from homes, businesses, and industries. This wastewater includes water from
toilets, sinks, showers, and other sources of domestic and industrial use. Managing sewage is crucial
to protect public health and the environment by preventing the contamination of water bodies.

Key Components of a Sewage System:

1. Collection System:

The collection system consists of pipelines (called sewers) that transport wastewater from individual
homes, businesses, and industries to sewage treatment plants. These sewers are generally classified
as sanitary sewers, which handle sewage, and combined sewers, which can handle both sewage and
storm water.

2. Sewage Treatment Plants:

Sewage treatment plants are designed to remove contaminants from wastewater before it is
released into natural water bodies like rivers, lakes, or oceans. Treatment typically occurs in multiple
stages:
 a. Primary Treatment: This involves the physical removal of large particles, such as solids and
grease, through sedimentation and screening.
b. Secondary Treatment: Biological processes are used to break down organic matter using
bacteria and microorganisms, which help reduce the organic load.
c. Tertiary Treatment: Further chemical or physical treatments may be used to remove any
remaining pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or pathogens.
3. Discharge:

Once treated, the effluent (treated wastewater) is typically discharged into natural water bodies,
ensuring that it meets environmental safety standards. Sludge, the solid waste left after treatment, is
either disposed of in landfills or used in agriculture as fertilizer after further treatment.

Importance of Sewage Systems:

1. Public Health: Proper sewage management is critical to prevent diseases like cholera,
dysentery, and other waterborne infections that can spread through contaminated water.
2. Environmental Protection: Untreated sewage can lead to water pollution, affecting aquatic
life and ecosystems. Sewage treatment plants help mitigate this by cleaning the water before
it is released into the environment.
3. Sanitation: Without effective sewage systems, urban areas would face unhygienic conditions,
resulting in foul odours, pests, and health hazards.

Storm Water Drainage

What is storm water?

Storm water refers to rainwater or melted snow that flows over streets, roofs, and other hard
surfaces during and after storms. This water can pick up dirt, chemicals, and debris as it runs off, but
it doesn't contain human waste or industrial pollutants like sewage does. Storm water is different
from sewage because it doesn’t come from inside homes or businesses; it’s essentially surface water
that needs to be drained away to prevent flooding.

Difference Between Storm Water and Sewage:

1. Source: Sewage comes from homes, industries, and businesses, containing waste from
toilets, sinks, and other plumbing systems. Storm water is natural water that comes from
rainfall or snowmelt running off surfaces.
2. Content: Sewage contains both liquid and solid waste, while storm water is mostly clean but
can carry pollutants like oil, soil, and trash picked up from roads and pavements.

Why Can’t We Combine Storm Water and Sewage Systems?

In some older cities, combined sewer systems are used, which carry both sewage and stormwater in
the same pipes. While cost-effective in terms of infrastructure, these systems can become
overwhelmed during heavy rainfall, causing untreated sewage and stormwater to overflow into rivers
and lakes. This is called combined sewer overflow (CSO), and it is a significant environmental issue. It
has significant drawbacks:

 Overflows: During heavy rains, combined sewers can become overwhelmed, causing
untreated sewage to overflow into rivers, lakes, and streets. This leads to severe water
pollution and health risks.
  Higher Treatment Costs: Treating storm water together with sewage increases the volume of
water that needs to be processed, making the system less efficient and more expensive to
operate.

Storm Water Drainage

Storm water drainage systems are designed to collect and manage rainwater (stormwater) runoff
from roads, rooftops, and other impermeable surfaces. Stormwater systems prevent flooding,
erosion, and contamination of water bodies by efficiently channelling rainwater away from populated
areas.

Key Components of a Storm Water Drainage System:

1. Catch Basins and Drains:

Stormwater is first collected through drains or catch basins located along roads, parking lots, and
other surfaces. These drains capture rainwater and direct it into the stormwater drainage network.

2. Pipes and Channels:

Once captured, stormwater flows through a network of underground pipes, channels, or ditches that
transport the water to larger water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, or reservoirs. These systems may
also include culverts (tunnels or channels) to move water across roads or under bridges.

3. Retention and Detention Ponds:

Retention ponds are artificial basins that hold stormwater permanently, allowing it to slowly infiltrate
the ground. Detention ponds, on the other hand, temporarily store stormwater during heavy rains
and release it slowly to prevent downstream flooding.

4. Green Infrastructure:

Green infrastructure, such as permeable pavements, rain gardens, and green roofs, is increasingly
used to manage stormwater naturally. These systems allow rainwater to infiltrate the ground and
reduce runoff, thereby minimizing the burden on stormwater drainage systems.

Importance of Storm Water Drainage:

 Flood Prevention: During heavy rains, stormwater systems prevent water from accumulating
on streets, in basements, and in low-lying areas, thus avoiding flooding and property
damage.
 Erosion Control: Uncontrolled runoff can lead to soil erosion, particularly in urban areas.
Stormwater drainage channels rainwater away, preventing the erosion of streets, parks, and
landscaped areas.
 Water Quality Protection: Stormwater can pick up pollutants like oil, chemicals, and debris
from roads and urban surfaces. By channelling this water away from sensitive ecosystems
and using filters or green infrastructure, stormwater systems help prevent water
contamination.
 Urban Planning and Safety: Effective stormwater drainage ensures that cities remain
functional during heavy rainfall events. It prevents waterlogging, which can disrupt
transportation and damage infrastructure.
Differences Between Sewage and Storm Water Drainage Systems

While both sewage and storm water drainage systems are designed to handle water, they have
different purposes and characteristics:

1. Source:
 Sewage Drainage: Handles wastewater from residential, commercial, and industrial sources,
including water from toilets, sinks, and appliances.
 Storm Water Drainage: Deals exclusively with rainwater runoff from roofs, streets, and other
impermeable surfaces.
2. Treatment:
 Sewage Drainage: Requires extensive treatment at sewage treatment plants before it is safe
to release back into the environment.
 Storm Water Drainage: Often discharged directly into water bodies with little or no
treatment, although green infrastructure or stormwater treatment facilities may be used to
improve water quality.
3. Design:
 Sewage Drainage: Built to handle relatively consistent flows of wastewater throughout the
day.
 Storm Water Drainage: Designed to handle large, sudden volumes of water during and after
rainstorms, making it essential to design for peak capacity.
 1.3 Housing Drainage Planning

Housing drainage planning is a critical component of urban development and public health
management. It involves the design, implementation, and maintenance of drainage systems to
manage the safe disposal of wastewater and stormwater, preventing waterlogging, soil erosion, and
pollution, and reducing public health risks. Recent scientific advancements and literature have
emphasized the importance of sustainable and efficient drainage systems due to increasing
urbanization and climate variability. Below is a detailed discussion on housing drainage planning
based on recent scientific literature and references.
1. Key Aspects of Housing Drainage Planning
a. Types of Drainage Systems
• Stormwater Drainage: Focuses on diverting rainwater away from housing areas to avoid flooding. It
includes features like gutters, drains, and channels. Sustainable systems prioritize infiltration and
retention to recharge groundwater and minimize urban runoff.
•Sanitary Drainage: Manages wastewater from households, ensuring that sewage is collected and
treated. This system is crucial in preventing contamination of drinking water sources and
environmental pollution.
•Combined Drainage Systems: Some urban areas use a combined system for both stormwater and
sanitary waste, which may cause overflows during heavy rains. Separate systems are generally
recommended for better efficiency and risk mitigation in modern housing plans.
b. Components of an Efficient Drainage System
•Pipes and Channels: Size and materials are critical to ensuring that pipes can handle the maximum
expected flow without causing blockages or backups.
• Slope and Grading: Proper grading of the land around a home ensures that water flows away from
structures, reducing the risk of structural damage due to water infiltration.
• Gutters and Downspouts: These components capture roof runoff and direct it to ground-level
drains or stormwater systems.
• Catch Basins and Inlets: Strategically located to prevent water pooling in low areas, these help in
intercepting runoff and debris.
2. Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
Incorporating Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) has become a major focus in housing drainage
planning. SuDS mimic natural drainage processes and manage surface water in a sustainable way,
reducing the impact of urbanization on the water cycle.

Components of SuDS:
• Permeable Paving: Allows water to filter through surfaces, reducing surface runoff and promoting
groundwater recharge (Brown et al., 2020, Journal of Sustainable Water Management).
• Green Roofs: Help in managing stormwater by retaining rainwater and reducing runoff (Feng and
Xu, 2021, Urban Water Journal).
• Rain Gardens and Bioretention Areas: Vegetated areas designed to slow, capture, and infiltrate
rainwater, thus reducing runoff (Mullaney and Lucke, 2020, Water).
• Detention Basins: These are temporary storage areas for excess stormwater, helping to reduce peak
flow rates (Sharma et al., 2023, Environmental Earth Sciences).

Benefits of SuDS:
• Improves water quality by filtering pollutants from runoff before it reaches rivers and lakes.
• Reduces the risk of flooding in urban areas.
• Enhances biodiversity by creating green spaces.
• Promotes sustainable urban development and resilience to climate change (CIRIA, 2020).

3. Challenges in Housing Drainage Systems

Modern housing drainage systems face multiple challenges, including:
• Climate Change: Increased rainfall and more frequent extreme weather events place added
pressure on drainage systems. Overwhelmed systems can lead to urban flooding, which is a growing
concern in many areas (Watkins et al., 2021, Journal of Hydrology).
• Aging Infrastructure: Many cities have outdated drainage systems that cannot handle current
demands. Upgrading these systems requires significant investment, planning, and coordination with
urban development efforts.
• Urbanization: The rapid pace of urbanization increases impervious surfaces, reducing natural
infiltration of water into the soil. This leads to higher runoff volumes, stressing drainage systems
(Chen et al., 2021, Water Resources Research).

4. Innovations in Drainage Design

Recent advances in technology have led to more efficient and resilient drainage designs:
• Smart Drainage Systems: Using IoT sensors to monitor water levels, flow rates, and blockages in
real-time. This allows for proactive maintenance and optimization of drainage networks (Gupta et al.,
2022, Journal of Urban Technology).
• Nature-Based Solutions: Incorporating green infrastructure like wetlands and bioswales to manage
stormwater naturally while enhancing local biodiversity (Shafique et al., 2022, Ecological
Engineering).
• Modular Systems: Prefabricated systems that can be customized for different housing types,
providing flexibility and efficiency in drainage installation (Morshed et al., 2021, Construction and
Building Materials).

5. Health and Environmental Impact

Proper drainage planning is vital for safeguarding public health and the environment. Poorly
designed or maintained drainage systems can lead to:
• Waterborne Diseases: Stagnant water from blocked or inefficient drains can harbor disease-causing
pathogens like cholera, dysentery, and dengue (Baker et al., 2021, Journal of Public Health).
• Soil and Water Pollution: Untreated runoff can carry pollutants like oil, heavy metals, and pesticides
into nearby rivers and lakes, disrupting ecosystems and contaminating drinking water supplies
(Crittenden et al., 2020, Water Environment Research).
6. Regulatory Frameworks and Guidelines
Housing drainage systems must adhere to local regulations and building codes, which are often
based on international standards:
• Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM): Encourages the
use of sustainable drainage in new housing developments (CIRIA, 2020).
• The Water Framework Directive (EU): Aims to protect water resources by mandating sustainable
management of urban drainage systems (European Commission, 2021).
• Indian Standards: In India, drainage planning must comply with guidelines set by the Central Public
Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), focusing on sanitary drainage and
flood control (CPHEEO, 2020).

7. Case Studies and Best Practices

• Case Study: Urban Drainage in Mumbai: This coastal megacity faces severe challenges with urban
drainage due to high rainfall and aging infrastructure. Recent interventions have focused on
implementing SuDS and upgrading old sewer systems to accommodate higher volumes of
stormwater (Banerjee et al., 2022, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management).
• Case Study: Drainage Systems in Scandinavian Cities: Cities like Copenhagen have adopted blue-
green infrastructure, integrating parks, rivers, and wetlands into the urban landscape to absorb
excess water and prevent flooding (Lindholm et al., 2020, Sustainable Cities and Society).
Conclusion
Proper planning of housing drainage systems is essential for sustainable urban development, public
health, and environmental protection. Recent advancements like SuDS, smart drainage systems, and
nature-based solutions offer promising approaches to managing stormwater and wastewater in an
efficient, eco-friendly manner. With increasing urbanization and climate variability, integrating
sustainable drainage design in housing is becoming a critical necessity.
 1.4. Environmental sanitation
Environmental sanitation refers to the management and safe disposal of various types of waste,
including human excreta, solid waste, and wastewater, alongside efforts to control waterborne
diseases and safeguard the environment.

Environmental sanitation practices involve not only the physical removal of waste but also the
treatment and disposal processes that ensure these waste materials do not pollute water bodies,
soil, or air.

Furthermore, environmental sanitation addresses vector control by reducing the breeding grounds
for disease-carrying organisms such as mosquitoes, flies, and rodents, which can spread infections in
both urban and rural areas.

Environmental sanitation is a crucial part of urban planning, public health policy, and sustainable
development. It involves collaboration across multiple sectors, including government agencies,
community organizations, and healthcare providers, to maintain clean, safe environments and
minimize health risks.

Proper sanitation practices play a central role in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), particularly Goal 6, which focuses on ensuring clean water and sanitation for all.

Key practices of environmental sanitation

Key practices of environmental sanitation include:

 Proper Disposal and Management of Human Waste:

Effective waste management is essential in environmental sanitation to prevent pollution and
protect public health. It involves:
 Solid Waste: This includes household and industrial waste, which should be managed
through recycling, composting, and disposal in landfills.
 Liquid Waste: Liquid waste, especially wastewater from households and industries, requires
treatment and safe disposal to prevent contamination of water sources.
 Sanitation Facilities: Access to clean and safe sanitation facilities is fundamental. These
include toilets, latrines, and urinals, which prevent open defecation and help in managing
human waste. In areas without sewer systems, alternative facilities such as septic tanks or pit
latrines are used.
  Water Supply and Treatment: Clean water supply and treatment prevent the spread of
waterborne diseases. Treated water should be free from pathogens and contaminants before
it reaches households. Wastewater treatment is also necessary to ensure that water released
into the environment is safe.
 Drainage Systems: Proper drainage prevents the buildup of stagnant water, which can harbor
disease-carrying insects. Well-planned drainage systems efficiently channel rainwater and
wastewater away from homes, reducing the risk of flooding and pollution.
 Control of Vectors: Manages the spread of disease-carrying insects like mosquitoes and flies
by eliminating breeding grounds and using sanitation practices.
 Safe Food Handling Practices: Ensures food is stored, prepared, and consumed in a way that
prevents contamination and spread of foodborne diseases.

Importance of Environmental Sanitation

 Environmental sanitation is vital for public health, environmental protection, and sustainable
development.
 It prevents the spread of infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and malaria, which can
be caused by inadequate sanitation and contaminated water.
 Proper sanitation practices protect ecosystems, reduce pollution, and conserve natural
resources, promoting a healthy living environment and enhancing overall quality of life.
 Effective sanitation also has economic benefits, reducing healthcare costs, increasing
productivity, and contributing to the social and economic development of communities.

Sustainable Sanitation Systems

Sustainable sanitation systems are designed to provide long-term waste management solutions that
protect human health, conserve resources, and reduce environmental impact. These systems treat
waste as a resource, often producing beneficial byproducts like biogas or compost, while reducing
water and energy consumption.

Examples of Sustainable Sanitation Systems:

 Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan): Ecosan is a closed-loop sanitation approach that safely

recycles human waste into resources, such as compost and fertilizer, for agricultural use.
Ecosan toilets separate urine and faeces, which are treated and reused, reducing water use
and providing nutrient-rich compost.
 Composting Toilets: These toilets turn human waste into compost by using natural processes
of decomposition. They require no water for flushing and are ideal for areas with limited
water supply.
 Biogas Systems: Biogas systems treat organic waste, including human waste, to produce
biogas, a renewable energy source used for cooking and heating. The process also generates
nutrient-rich sludge that can be used as fertilizer.
 Greywater Recycling: This involves reusing lightly used water from showers, sinks, and
laundry for purposes like irrigation and toilet flushing, reducing the demand for fresh water.

These sustainable systems help reduce pollution, conserve water, and minimize the health risks
associated with traditional waste disposal methods. By integrating sustainable sanitation practices,
communities can achieve improved health, environmental protection, and sustainable resource
management.
 1.5. Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Ventilation is the process of introducing fresh outdoor air into an indoor space and expelling stale,
polluted air to maintain air quality. It is essential in controlling humidity, temperature, and
contaminants, ensuring adequate oxygen supply, and removing airborne pollutants like dust, smoke,
and bacteria. Ventilation can be natural, using windows or other openings, or mechanical, using fans,
ductwork, and exhaust systems to ensure a steady air exchange, especially in enclosed spaces where
natural airflow is limited.

Air Conditioning (AC), on the other hand, involves cooling, heating, and dehumidifying indoor air to
maintain a comfortable and consistent temperature. AC systems regulate thermal comfort and air
quality by controlling humidity, filtering air, and reducing levels of pollutants. While ventilation
primarily involves the movement of air, air conditioning includes the processing of air to adjust
temperature and moisture levels, making the indoor environment more comfortable, particularly in
extreme climates.

Importance of Ventilation and Air Conditioning in Environmental Engineering

1. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ):

 Ventilation provides fresh air and removes stale air, reducing indoor pollutants such as dust,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and carbon dioxide.
 Air conditioning filters and dehumidifies air, helping control allergens and pollutants that can
cause respiratory issues and allergies.
 Proper IAQ management can prevent Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), a condition where
occupants experience health issues like headaches and respiratory problems due to
inadequate air quality.

2. Thermal Comfort:

 Effective ventilation and air conditioning systems help maintain optimal indoor temperature
and humidity, ensuring thermal comfort for occupants.
 Thermal comfort improves productivity and satisfaction in workplaces, enhances occupant
well-being in homes, and provides crucial climate control in industrial settings.
 3. Energy Efficiency and Environmental Impact:

 Energy-efficient ventilation and AC systems reduce energy consumption, cutting operational

costs and greenhouse gas emissions.
 Environmental engineers focus on designing HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning) systems that balance comfort and efficiency through energy-saving
technologies, such as variable speed fans, smart controls, and heat recovery.
Types of Ventilation
Ventilation systems are mainly categorized as natural or mechanical:
1. Natural Ventilation:

 This relies on natural forces like wind and temperature differences to circulate air through
windows, vents, or other openings.
 It is cost-effective and energy-efficient but less controllable, making it challenging in extreme
weather conditions or highly polluted areas.
2. Mechanical Ventilation:

 Mechanical ventilation uses fans and ducts to move air, allowing precise control over air
exchange rates and quality.
 Types of Mechanical Ventilation:
 Exhaust Ventilation: Uses exhaust fans to remove stale indoor air, drawing fresh air in from
outside.
 Supply Ventilation: Pumps outdoor air into the building, pressurizing the space and forcing
stale air out.
 Balanced Ventilation: Uses both supply and exhaust fans to control air exchange, creating a
consistent indoor environment.
 Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV): Transfers heat between outgoing and incoming air streams,
conserving energy.
Components of Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems
1. Ductwork:
Ducts are channels that distribute air throughout the building. They help control temperature and air
quality in each space.
2. Air Filters:
Air filters trap dust, allergens, and contaminants, keeping air clean and maintaining system efficiency.
3. Fans and Blowers:
Fans and blowers control airflow and ventilation rates, from small ceiling fans to large industrial
exhaust fans.
4. Cooling Coils and Condensers:
Cooling coils remove heat from air, essential for temperature control in AC systems.
5. Thermostats and Control Systems:
Thermostats regulate temperature, and advanced control systems adjust settings based on real-time
data to optimize energy usage.
Sustainable Ventilation and Air Conditioning Practices
1. Energy Recovery Systems:
Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) systems capture heat from outgoing air, reusing it to warm incoming
air and reducing energy needs.
2. Natural Cooling and Passive Ventilation:
Passive strategies, such as cross-ventilation, shading, and thermal mass, can minimize reliance on
mechanical systems, saving energy.
3. Green Building Certifications:
Certifications like LEED encourage the use of sustainable HVAC systems, energy-efficient materials,
and renewable energy integration.
4. Smart Ventilation Systems:
Smart systems use sensors to monitor air quality and adjust airflow, temperature, and humidity as
needed.
5. Renewable Energy Integration:
Solar-assisted HVAC systems reduce the carbon footprint and provide cleaner energy alternatives.

Applications in Industrial and Urban Settings

1. Industrial Ventilation:
Industrial ventilation is critical for controlling harmful substances, like dust and fumes, to maintain
worker safety and meet regulatory standards.
2. Urban Air Quality Management:
In urban areas, effective HVAC systems in buildings mitigate urban heat and pollution, contributing to
healthier, more liveable cities.
3. Healthcare Facilities:
Hospitals use specialized ventilation to prevent airborne disease transmission, with filtered air in
positive and negative pressure rooms.
 Unit-2: Drinking Water Treatment
2.1 Flocculation, Sedimentation with Coagulation
Drinking water treatment is a critical process designed to remove impurities, making water safe for
human consumption. Among the key steps in water treatment, coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation work together to eliminate suspended solids, turbidity, organic matter, and
microorganisms. These steps are vital in producing clear and potable water. Below are detailed
explanations of these processes with proper definitions, examples, and additional information.

1. Coagulation
Definition:
Coagulation is the process of adding chemical substances called coagulants to water to destabilize
suspended and colloidal particles. These particles usually have a negative surface charge that
prevents them from clumping together. Coagulants neutralize these charges, enabling the particles to
aggregate into larger masses known as micro-flocs.

How Coagulation Works:

Coagulation is the first step in removing small, suspended particles (such as clay, silt, organic matter,
and microorganisms) that cannot settle on their own.
Step-by-Step Process of Coagulation:
 Introduction of Coagulants:
A chemical coagulant (e.g., alum or ferric chloride) is added to the raw water in a rapid-mixing tank.
The mixing is done at high speeds to distribute the coagulant evenly throughout the water.
 Neutralization of Charges:
Most particles in water have a negative surface charge, which causes them to repel each other and
stay suspended. The coagulant introduces positively charged ions that neutralize these negative
charges.
 Formation of Micro-flocs:
As the particles lose their charge, they no longer repel each other. Instead, they begin to attract and
stick together, forming tiny, invisible clusters called micro-flocs.
 Chemical Reactions:
For example, alum reacts with the natural alkalinity in water (calcium and bicarbonates) to form
aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3, a gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate binds with the particles and

Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O+3Ca(HCO3)2--------------→2Al(OH)3↓+3CaSO4+6CO2+14H2O
helps in their aggregation.
Commonly Used Coagulants:
Coagulants are broadly classified into chemical coagulants and natural coagulants.

1. Chemical Coagulants:
These are inorganic salts or polymers that are widely used in water treatment plants. Examples
include:
a) Aluminium Sulphate (Filter Alum):
 The most commonly used coagulant.
 Alum reacts with water to produce positively charged aluminium ions, which attract and

Example reaction: Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O+3Ca(HCO3)2--------------→2Al(OH)3↓+3CaSO4+6CO2+14H2O

neutralize negatively charged particles.

b) Ferric Chloride (FeCl₃):

 Works in a wide pH range and forms ferric hydroxide flocs that trap impurities.
 It is highly effective in removing colour, organic matter, and suspended solids.
c) Ferric Sulphate (Fe₂(SO₄)₃):
Often used in areas with low alkalinity.
d) Polyaluminium Chloride (PAC):
A modern coagulant that works effectively in smaller doses.
e) Polymers:

Cationic polymers can be effective for coagulation without hydrolysing metals by producing
destabilization through charge neutralization and interparticle bridging.

f) Acids and alkalis:

Acids and alkalis are added to water to adjust pH for optimum coagulation. Typical acids used to
lower pH are H2SO4, H3PO4.
Alkalis used to raise pH are lime, NaOH, and soda ash.

2) Natural Coagulants:
It is derived from plant-based or natural materials; these are eco-friendly alternatives to chemical
coagulants.
Example: Moringa oleifera seeds, which contain proteins that act as natural coagulants.

2. Flocculation
Definition:
Flocculation is the process of gently mixing the water to promote the formation of larger, denser
aggregates of particles, called flocs, from the smaller micro-flocs formed during coagulation. The goal
of flocculation is to create flocs that are heavy enough to settle during sedimentation.

How Flocculation Works:

Flocculation is the second step, where the micro-flocs formed during coagulation are encouraged to
grow into larger, heavier particles (called macro-flocs) that can settle more easily in the
sedimentation stage.
Step-by-Step Process of Flocculation:
1) Gentle Mixing:
 After coagulation, the water flows into a flocculation basin, where it is stirred gently using
mechanical paddles or hydraulic flow.
  This mixing allows particles to collide and stick together, forming larger clumps.
2) Collision and Aggregation:
 The stirring ensures that the micro-flocs frequently come into contact with each other.
 Over time, these collisions cause the particles to aggregate and form visible flocs.
3) Addition of Flocculants (Optional):
 If the particles are not aggregating effectively, additional chemicals called flocculants (e.g.,
polyacrylamides) are added.
 These are usually long-chain polymers that act as "bridges," binding multiple particles
together to create stronger flocs.
4) Time Factor:
 The water is kept in the flocculation tank for 20–30 minutes to allow sufficient time for flocs
to grow.
 The mixing intensity is gradually reduced to prevent breaking apart the flocs.
Types of Flocculators
1. Mechanical Flocculators: These use paddles or impellers to stir the water.
2. Hydraulic Flocculators: These rely on the energy of the water flow itself, often using
baffles to create mixing zones.
Flocculants:
Sometimes, additional chemicals called flocculants (usually long-chain polymers) are added to
strengthen flocs.
Examples of flocculants include:
 Polyacrylamides: Synthetic polymers that enhance floc formation.
 Starch-based polymers: Eco-friendly alternatives derived from plants.

3. Sedimentation
Definition:
Sedimentation is the process by which heavier flocs formed during flocculation settle to the bottom
of a sedimentation tank due to gravity. This process separates most of the suspended particles from
water, leaving behind a relatively clear liquid layer.

How Sedimentation Works:

Sedimentation is the final step in this sequence, where the flocs formed during flocculation are
allowed to settle at the bottom of a sedimentation tank under the influence of gravity.

Step-by-Step Process of Sedimentation:

1) Water Flow into Sedimentation Tank:
 The water flows from the flocculation basin into a large sedimentation tank or clarifier.
 The flow is designed to be slow and uniform to prevent disturbing the flocs.
2) Settling of Flocs:
 The larger, heavier flocs settle to the bottom of the tank due to gravity.
 This settling form a sludge layer at the base of the tank.
3) Formation of Clear Water (Supernatant):
 As the flocs settle, a layer of relatively clear water (called the supernatant) forms at the top
of the tank.
 This clear water is collected through weirs or outlets for further treatment, such as filtration
and disinfection.
4) Sludge Removal:
  The sludge that accumulates at the bottom of the tank is periodically removed using
mechanical scrapers or vacuum systems.
5) Retention Time:
 Water is usually kept in the sedimentation tank for 1–4 hours, depending on the design and
size of the flocs.

Types of Sedimentation Tanks:

a) Rectangular Tanks: Common in large treatment plants, with water flowing horizontally.
b) Circular Tanks: Water flows radially, and sludge is collected at the center.
c) Up-flow Tanks: Water flows upward while sludge settles at the bottom.
1.2 Concept, methods and design of sand filters, pressure filters,
horizontal filters

Definition of Filtration
Filtration is the process of removing suspended particles, impurities, and contaminants from water
by passing it through a porous medium. It is an essential step in water treatment to ensure the water
is clear, free from turbidity, and safe for consumption.
Filtration is primarily a physical process but can also include biological and chemical mechanisms
depending on the type of filtration system used. It is commonly applied after coagulation and
sedimentation in water treatment to remove remaining fine particles, microorganisms, and organic
matter.

Filters Used in Filtration

Filters are devices or systems designed to separate impurities from water by using a filter medium.
The medium acts as a barrier that allows water to pass through while retaining suspended particles.
The filters used in water treatment are selected based on factors such as:
 The quality of raw water (e.g., turbidity and particle size).
 Desired quality of treated water.
 Flow rate and capacity requirements.

Types of Filters in Water Treatment

There are several types of filters used in water treatment plants:
1) Sand Filters
 These use layers of sand and gravel to remove impurities.
 Can be slow sand filters or rapid sand filters depending on flow rate and filtration process.
2) Pressure Filters
 Enclosed systems where water is filtered under pressure.
 Typically used for industrial applications and high-efficiency filtration.
3) Horizontal Filters
 Large-scale filters designed to process high volumes of water in municipal plants.
 The filtration occurs horizontally through sand and gravel media.

Concept, Method, and Design of Sand Filters

Sand filters are among the most common and effective filtration systems used in water treatment
plants. They use a layered bed of sand and gravel to physically and biologically filter water.

Concept of Sand Filters

The basic principle of sand filters is to remove impurities by passing water through layers of sand,
gravel, and sometimes additional media. As the water flows through the filter, suspended particles
are trapped in the sand layer, and microorganisms are removed through biological activity.

Purpose of Sand Filters:

 Removal of suspended solids and turbidity.

 Reduction of pathogens through straining and biological activity.
 Enhancing the clarity and aesthetic quality of water.

Types Of Sand Filters

The main types of sand filters used in water treatment are as follows:

1) Slow Sand Filters (SSF):

Slow sand filters operate at low filtration rates and use both biological and physical mechanisms to
remove impurities. They are simple in design and suitable for small-scale or rural water treatment
systems.

2) Rapid Sand Filters (RSF):

Rapid sand filters work at higher filtration rates and rely primarily on physical straining to remove
suspended particles. These filters require regular backwashing for cleaning and are commonly used
in municipal and industrial water treatment plants.

3) Up-flow Sand Filters:

In up-flow sand filters, water flows from the bottom to the top of the filter bed. These filters are
effective in compact systems and are often used as a pre-treatment step in water treatment
processes.

4) Dual Media Filters:

Dual media filters use two types of filtering materials, typically sand and anthracite, to improve
filtration efficiency. They are designed to remove finer particles and are commonly used in municipal
and industrial applications.

5) Horizontal Sand Filters:

Horizontal sand filters are large-scale filtration systems where water flows horizontally through the
sand bed. These filters are used in municipal water treatment plants to handle large volumes of
water.

6) Intermittent Sand Filters:

Intermittent sand filters operate in batch mode, where water is filtered periodically rather than
continuously. These filters are effective for small-scale water treatment or decentralized systems.

7) High-Rate Sand Filters:

High-rate sand filters are designed to handle very high flow rates and use coarser sand media. They
are often used in industrial systems or applications requiring rapid filtration, such as swimming pools

Working of Sand Filters

The filtration process in sand filters involves the following steps:

1. Water Flow Through the Filter:

Raw water enters the filter bed and passes downward (in vertical sand filters) or horizontally (in
horizontal sand filters).

2. Retention of Particles:

Larger particles are trapped on the surface of the sand bed, while smaller particles are retained in
the void spaces between sand grains.

3. Biological Activity (in Slow Sand Filters):

A biofilm layer, called the schmutzdecke, forms on the top layer of sand. This layer consists of
bacteria, algae, and microorganisms that help break down organic impurities and kill pathogens.

4. Flow of Treated Water:

The filtered water is collected through an underdrain system and sent for further treatment or
storage.

5. Cleaning and Maintenance:

 In slow sand filters, cleaning involves removing the top layer of sand where impurities
accumulate.
 In rapid sand filters, cleaning is done by backwashing, where water flows in the reverse
direction to remove trapped particles.

Design of Sand Filters

The design of sand filters depends on factors such as the desired flow rate, the level of impurities in
raw water, and the filtration mechanism (slow or rapid). Below is an elaborated explanation of their
design features:

1. Filter Media

 Top Layer: Fine sand (effective size: 0.15–0.35 mm). This layer is responsible for trapping
smaller particles.
 Intermediate Layer: Medium sand or fine gravel. This provides support to the top layer and
assists in filtration.
 Bottom Layer: Coarse gravel (effective size: 5–10 mm). This layer prevents the filter media
from entering the underdrain system.

2. Depth of Filter Bed

The total depth of the sand and gravel layers typically ranges between 0.6–1.2 meters.

3. Underdrain System

 A network of perforated pipes or tiles is installed at the bottom of the filter bed to collect
filtered water.
 It also facilitates backwashing in rapid sand filters.

4. Flow Rate

 Slow Sand Filters: Operate at a flow rate of 0.1–0.3 m³/m²/h.

  Rapid Sand Filters: Operate at a higher flow rate of 5–15 m³/m²/h.

5. Cleaning Mechanism

 Slow sand filters require manual scraping of the top sand layer.
 Rapid sand filters use automated backwashing systems.

6. Retention Time

 The water is retained in the filter bed for a specific time to allow adequate filtration.

Pressure Filters

Pressure filters are enclosed systems used in water treatment to remove impurities from water by
forcing it through a filter medium under high pressure. These filters are commonly used in industrial
applications, municipal water treatment, and situations where high-efficiency filtration is required.

The primary concept behind pressure filters is to use a pressurized environment to enhance the
filtration process. By applying pressure, water is pushed through the filter media more quickly and
efficiently than in gravity-based systems. This pressure can be achieved through pumps or the natural
pressure of the water supply system.

Purpose of Pressure Filters

 To remove suspended particles, turbidity, and impurities from water.

 To improve water clarity and quality for industrial, municipal, and residential use.
 To handle high flow rates and large volumes of water efficiently.

Types of Pressure Filters

1) Pressure Sand Filters:

 These filters use sand as the primary filtering medium.
 They are effective in removing suspended solids, turbidity, and particulate matter from
water.
2) Multimedia Filters:
 These filters use multiple layers of different filtering media, such as sand, anthracite, and
gravel.
 The varied media layers provide enhanced filtration by trapping particles of different sizes.
3) Activated Carbon Filters:
 These filters use activated carbon as the filtering medium.
 They are particularly effective in removing organic contaminants, chlorine, and odors from
water.

Design of Pressure Filters

Filter Vessel

 Pressure filters are housed in enclosed vessels made from materials like steel or fiberglass.
 The vessel is designed to withstand high pressures and is equipped with inlet and outlet
connections.

Filter Media
  The choice of filter media depends on the specific application and the type of impurities to
be removed.
 Common filter media include sand, anthracite, gravel, activated carbon, and multimedia
layers.

Underdrain System

 The underdrain system is located at the bottom of the filter vessel and collects filtered water.
 It also distributes backwash water during the cleaning cycle to ensure thorough cleaning of
the filter media.

Pressure Gauges and Control Valves

 Pressure filters are equipped with pressure gauges to monitor the operating pressure.
 Control valves are used to regulate the flow of water into and out of the filter vessel.

Working of Pressure Filters

Filtration Process

1) Inlet Water:
 Raw water enters the pressure filter vessel through the inlet connection.
 The pressure is generated by pumps or the natural pressure of the water supply.
2) Water Flow:
 Water is forced through the filter media under pressure.
 As water passes through the media, suspended particles, turbidity, and impurities are
trapped and retained.
3) Collection of Filtered Water:
 Filtered water is collected by the underdrain system and exits the filter vessel through the
outlet connection.

Backwashing Process

1) Initiation of Backwash:
 When the filter media becomes clogged with impurities, the filtration efficiency decreases,
and the pressure drop increases.
 The backwash cycle is initiated to clean the filter media.
2) Reverse Water Flow:
 During backwashing, water flows in the reverse direction from the bottom to the top of the
filter vessel.
 The reverse flow loosens and removes trapped impurities from the filter media.
3) Collection of Backwash Water:
 The dirty backwash water is collected and discharged from the filter vessel.
 The filter media is now clean and ready for the next filtration cycle.

Control and Monitoring

 Pressure gauges are used to monitor the operating pressure and detect when backwashing is
needed.
 Control valves regulate the flow of water during both the filtration and backwashing
processes.

Horizontal Filters
Horizontal filters are large-scale filtration systems where water flows horizontally through a filter bed
to remove suspended solids, turbidity, and impurities. These filters are typically used in municipal
and industrial water treatment plants where large volumes of water need to be treated efficiently.

The primary concept of horizontal filters is to use a horizontal flow of water through a filter medium
to achieve effective filtration. These filters are designed with a large surface area, allowing them to
handle high flow rates and treat significant quantities of water. They are commonly housed in long
rectangular tanks divided into compartments.

Purpose of Horizontal Filters

 To remove impurities such as suspended solids and organic matter from water.
 To provide efficient filtration for high-volume water treatment processes.
 To act as a primary or secondary filtration step in large-scale water treatment systems.

Types of Horizontal Filters

The main types of horizontal filters include:

1) Horizontal Rapid Sand Filters:

 These filters use sand as the primary filtering medium.
 They operate at high filtration rates and are commonly used in municipal water treatment.
2) Horizontal Multimedia Filters:
 These filters use multiple layers of filtering media, such as sand, anthracite, and gravel.
 They provide enhanced filtration by trapping particles of various sizes.

Design of Horizontal Filters

Filter Tank

 The filter tank is typically rectangular and divided into multiple compartments.
 Each compartment contains the filter media and underdrain systems.
 The length of the tank is designed to ensure sufficient horizontal water flow for filtration.

Filter Media

 The filter media commonly consists of layers of sand, gravel, and sometimes anthracite.
 The choice of media depends on the type of impurities to be removed and the required
water quality.

Underdrain System

 Each compartment has an underdrain system at the bottom to collect filtered water.
 The underdrain also facilitates backwashing by distributing the cleaning water evenly across
the filter bed.

Inlet and Outlet Design

 Water enters the horizontal filter from one side and flows through the filter media
horizontally.
 The treated water exits through outlets located on the opposite side of the tank.

Control Mechanisms
  Horizontal filters are equipped with flow control systems to regulate water movement
through the compartments.
 Pressure gauges and flow meters monitor the performance of the filtration system.

Working of Horizontal Filters

Filtration Process

1) Inlet Water Flow:

 Raw water enters the horizontal filter tank from the inlet side.
 The water is evenly distributed across the width of the tank to ensure uniform flow.
2) Horizontal Flow Through Filter Media:
 As water flows horizontally through the filter media, suspended particles, turbidity, and
impurities are trapped within the media layers.
 The filtration process relies on physical straining, sedimentation, and adsorption to remove
contaminants.
3) Collection of Filtered Water:
 The filtered water is collected by the underdrain system located at the opposite end of the
tank.
 The treated water exits through the outlet and is either sent for further treatment or
distributed for use.

Backwashing Process

1) Initiation of Backwash Cycle:

 Over time, the filter media becomes clogged with trapped impurities, reducing filtration
efficiency.
 When the pressure drop across the filter reaches a specified limit, the backwash cycle is
initiated.
2) Reverse Flow of Cleaning Water:
 During backwashing, clean water is pumped into the filter in the reverse direction, starting
from the underdrain system.
 The reverse flow loosens and removes the trapped impurities from the filter media.
3) Discharge of Backwash Water:
 The dirty backwash water is collected and discharged through designated outlets.
 The filter media is restored to its original condition and ready for the next filtration cycle.

Compartmental Cleaning:

In horizontal filters, compartments can be cleaned individually without disrupting the operation of
the other compartments. This ensures continuous filtration while maintenance is performed.

Fig: Slow Sand Filtration

Fig: Rapid Sand Filter

Fig: Pressure Filter

Fig: Horizontal Filters