1.

​ Social Constructivism: Vygotsky’s Theory oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist trying to learn something or
whose sociocultural theory emphasizes remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as
the importance of culture and interaction in the development of the speech we use when
cognitive abilities. Vygotsky communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).
differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person has not
only a set of abilities but also a set Implications for Education
of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper Vygotsky’s theories have been extremely influential for
guidance from others. Vygotsky education. Although Vygotsky
developed theories on teaching that have been adopted by himself never mentioned the term scaffolding, it is often
educators today. credited to him as a continuation of his
ideas pertaining to the way adults or other children can use
Like Piaget, Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, but guidance in order for a child to work
he argued that it is the within their ZPD. (The term scaffolding was first developed by
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that Jerome Bruner, David Wood, and
elicit the highest level of cognitive Gail Ross while applying Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD to various
thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that social interactions with educational contexts.)
teachers and more learned
peers could facilitate a learner’s potential for learning. Without Educators often apply these concepts by assigning tasks that
this interpersonal instruction, he students cannot do on
believed learners’ minds would not advance very far as their their own, but which they can do with assistance; they should
knowledge would be based only on provide just enough assistance so
their own discoveries. that students learn to complete the tasks independently and
then provide an environment that
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding enables students to do harder tasks than would otherwise be
Vygotsky’s best-known concept is the Zone of Proximal possible. Teachers can also allow
Development (ZPD). The ZPD has been students with more knowledge to assist students who need
defined as “the distance between the actual developmental more guidance. Especially in the
level as determined by independent context of collaborative learning, group members who have
problem solving and the level of potential development as higher levels of understanding can
determined through problem-solving help the less advanced members learn within their zone of
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable proximal development.
peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Lev Vygotsky’s theory is called social constructivist theory
Vygotsky stated that learners should be taught in the ZPD. A because in his opinion, learners must be engaged in the
good teacher or more-knowledgable-other (MKO) identifies a learning process. A child cannot learn without the assistance of
learner’s ZPD and helps them stretch beyond it. other people.
Then the MKO gradually withdraws support until the learner Knowledge is co constructed and that individual learn from one
can perform the task unaided. another
Other psychologists have applied the metaphor of scaffolds
(the temporary platforms on which 2.​ Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
construction workers stand) to Vygotsky’s theory. Scaffolding is
the temporary support that an What Is Observational Learning?
MKO gives a learner to do a task.
Observational learning is a key aspect of social learning theory,
where individuals learn and
adopt behaviors by observing others.

This process often involves modeling after those who are

similar, high-status, knowledgeable,
rewarded, or nurturing figures in our lives.

Children observe the people around them behaving in various

ways. This is illustrated during
the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).

What is a model?

Thought and Speech Individuals that are observed are called models. In society,
Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs children are surrounded by many
when you are struggling with a influential models, such as parents within the family, characters
problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional on children’s TV, friends within
about a situation. Children talk to their peer group, and teachers at school.
themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or
a practice engaged in because These models provide examples of behavior to observe and
of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. imitate, e.g., masculine and
Vygotsky, however, believed that feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify
thoughts. As children learn to Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and
think in words, they do so aloud, referred to as private speech, encode their behavior. At a later
speech meant only for one’s self. time, they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have
Eventually, thinking out loud becomes thought accompanied by observed.
internal speech, and talking to
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender gets praised by the teacher for asking questions, they are
appropriate’ or not, but there are likelier to ask questions themselves.
several processes that make it more likely that a child will
reproduce the behavior that society The way role models achieve success impacts their
deems appropriate for its gender. effectiveness. People benefit more from
role models whose success is due to factors they can control,
Albert Bandura, through his work on social learning like effort, rather than
theory, identified three primary uncontrollable factors like innate talent (Weiner, 1979, 1985).
models of observational learning:
Studies showed girls performed better in math when their role
Live Model: Observing an actual individual perform a behavior. model’s success was linked to
Verbal Instructional Model: Listening to detailed descriptions effort. In contrast, if the success was attributed to natural
of behavior and then acting talent, their performance declined
based on that description. compared to boys (Bàges, Verniers, & Martinot, 2016).
Symbolic Model: Learning through media, such as books,
movies, television, or online media, 4. Status of the Model
where behaviors are demonstrated. We are likelier to imitate individuals who hold high-status
positions, such as leaders, celebrities,
Through these models, individuals can vicariously learn by or successful people in our field of interest.
watching others without necessarily
undergoing direct firsthand experiences. High-status individuals are often admired and seen as role
models, so their behaviors are
likelier to be seen as desirable and worth imitating.
Influences on Observational Learning
Based on Bandura’s research, several factors enhance the People are also more likely to imitate experts or
likelihood of a behavior being knowledgeable individuals in a certain area.
imitated. We are more prone to imitate behaviors when the These individuals’ behaviors are seen as effective and efficient
following conditions apply: ways of achieving goals in that
Area.
Attentional Processes
1. Similarity of the Model 5. Reinforcement and punishment
We are more likely to model our behaviors after individuals The people around the child will respond to the behavior it
who are similar to us. This is imitates with either reinforcement or
because we are more likely to identify with these individuals, punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the
making their behaviors seem more consequences are rewarding, the
relevant and attainable. child will likely continue performing the behavior.

2. Identification with the Model If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says,
Identification occurs with another person (the model) and “what a kind girl you are,” this is
involves taking on (or adopting) rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will
observed behaviors, values, beliefs, and attitudes of the repeat the behavior. Her behavior
person you identify with. has been positively reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they
have a quality that the individual Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive
would like to possess. or negative. If a child wants
approval from parents or peers, verbal approval is an external
The more an individual identifies with the model (for instance, reinforcement, but feeling happy
because they are similar or aspire about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child
to be like the model), the more likely they are to imitate their will behave in a way that it
behavior. believes will earn approval because it desires approval.

This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the
qualities seen as rewarding. external reinforcement does not
Children will have several models with whom they identify. match an individual’s needs. Reinforcement can be positive or
These may be people in their negative, but the important
immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or they factor is that it will usually change a person’s behavior.
could be fantasy characters or
people in the media. Examples
Education
Identification differs from imitation as it may involve adopting Sense of Belonging: Exposure to positive role models in
several behaviors, whereas education enhances a sense of
imitation usually involves copying a single behavior. belonging, especially for groups subjected to negative
stereotypes like women and racial
Motivational Processes minorities in STEM (Dasgupta, 2011; Rosenthal et al., 2013).
3. Rewarded Behaviors
Individuals who see that a model is rewarded for their For instance, women who read about successful female
behaviors are likelier to imitate them, physicians in male-dominated careers
while behavior resulting in negative outcomes is less likely to felt a stronger connection to their own paths (Rosenthal et al.,
be copied. 2013).

This is known as vicarious reinforcement. For instance, if a Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities, greatly
student sees that another student influences whether a person will
imitate an observed behavior. 3.​ Ivan Pavlov CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical
Women in calculus classes reported higher self-efficacy and conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned
participation when taught by female experiment involved
professors compared to male professors (Stout et al., 2011). meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the
dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he
The women’s identification with their female professors stumbled upon classical conditioning.
significantly predicted this increased
belief in their own abilities. Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell
(neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing
Increased Achievement: Students who read about the food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated
challenges overcome by famous salivation (unconditional response). During conditioning, the
scientists performed better than those who read only about bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented
their achievements (Lin-Siegler et with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell
al., 2016). Observing perseverance fosters personal (Conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned
performance. response). This is classical conditioning.

Perceived attainability: Role models’ successes should be CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

achievable. If aspirants believe they Stage 1 – Before conditioning
can attain similar success, they’re more motivated. Bell (Neutral stimulus)
Step 2 – During conditioning
For example, college freshmen were more motivated by Bell (Neutral stimulus
successful seniors than fourth-year Paired with Meat (Unconditioned stimulus)
students were, likely because the freshmen felt they had more Stage 3 – After conditioning
time to achieve similar success Bell (Conditioned Stimulus)
(Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). No response
Salivation (Unconditioned response)
Perceived similarity: An effective role model is someone others Salivation (Conditioned response) Stimulus)
see as similar or relatable. This
perceived similarity, whether through shared group Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects
membership, experiences, or interests, with your teacher. So at present, when you encounter the
boosts motivation. objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an
example of classical conditioning.
For example, women were more interested in computer
science when interacting with relatable Pavlov also had the following findings:
models, like a casually dressed and socially skilled computer Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to
scientist, than with stereotypical salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar
ones (Cheryan et al., 2011). sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation
Media Violence will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be
Children observe violent behavior in media and tend to mimic “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish
or imitate it. This imitation occurs again if the dog is not presented with food.
through social learning processes and is likely mediated by Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between
“mirror neurons” that activate when similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
actions are observed or performed (Huesmann, 2005). presentation of food and which would not.
Extensive observation of violence can bias children’s world Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been
schemas toward attributing hostility conditioned to associate the bell with food, another
or negative intentions to others’ actions. These hostile unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the
attributions increase the likelihood of same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate
behaving aggressively (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007). at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.
Children acquire social scripts for behaviors they observe
around them, including in the media. 4.​ Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)
Once learned, these scripts can automatically control social The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R
behavior. Exposure to media framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of
violence provides aggressive scripts. associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such
Normative beliefs about acceptable social behaviors crystallize associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by
as children mature. These the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for
beliefs act as filters limiting inappropriate behaviors. Observing S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
violence in media can influence responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The
which behaviors children see as normative or acceptable. hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
Repeated exposure to media violence can lead to learning could be adequately explained without referring to any
desensitization – the diminishing of emotional unobservable internal states.
responses to violence. This makes it easier for children to think
about and plan aggressive acts Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws:
without negative affect. (1) law of effect – responses to a situation which are followed
Playing violent video games allows for enactive learning of by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and
aggression, as players actively become habitual responses to that situation,
participate and are rewarded for violent actions in the game. (2) law of readiness – a series of responses can be chained
This should strengthen the learning together to satisfy some goal which
of aggression beyond passive media observation. will result in annoyance if blocked, and
(3) law of exercise – connections become strengthened with relationship management (originally developed in 1998 with
practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A five domains and redesigned in
corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the 2002 with four) is a good start to understand the concepts of
likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, EI.
failures) will decrease in strength.

Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory

Thorndike’s learning theory, however, consists of numerous

additional laws:
Multiple responses
In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of
ways if the initial reaction does not
immediately lead to a satisfying result.
Set of attitudes
Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These
reactions are unique for species or
groups of related species.
Prepotency of elements
Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a
particular situation and respond only
to significant parameters that directly affect this situation.
Response by analogy
Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be
transferred to a new one. This is
also called Theory of Identical Elements.
Associative shifting
Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a
different one. Self- Awareness
Thorndike also suggested the Connectionism Theory, which is • Emotional self-awareness
based on the ideas presented by • Accurate self-assessment
associationism. In this theory, Thorndike hypothesized that • Self-confidence
certain elements become associated
though a similar experience and that more complex ideas can According to John Mayer (University of New Hampshire
be taught or explained through a psychologist and one of the first to study emotional
series of simplified rules. In this theory, there are four key intelligence) self-awareness is being “aware of both our mood
principles: and our thoughts about mood.” It is also explained by Goleman
(2002) as the ability to read and understand your emotions as
Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based well as recognize their impact on others. It can simply be put
upon the law of effect). that self-awareness is
a basic understanding of how we feel and why we feel that
Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are way. The more we are aware of our feelings, the easier they
part of the same “action sequence” are to manage and dictate how we might respond to others.
(based upon the law of readiness).
Emotional awareness is the result of this sequence:
The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations 1. Sense the emotion (feeling)
that have been previously 2. Acknowledge the feeling
experienced by the individual. 3. Identify more facts
4. Accept the feeling
Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations 5. Reflect on why the emotion is showing up in that moment.
have been learned and/or acquired. Notice what other feelings
are present or came before it. Ask yourself what its purpose
5.​ Daniel Goleman might be, what it is communicating,
What is Emotional Intelligence? demonstrating, or trying to teach you.
Emotional Intelligence refers to the capacity to recognize and 6. Act – bring your thoughts and feelings up and take
manage our own feelings and to recognize and respond appropriate action, if needed.
effectively to those of others. There are various theorists who 7. Reflect on the usefulness of the response and what lesson
have developed different models of emotional intelligence. you would like to take away.
They are very similar but have a few variations in how they are
structured. For the purposes of these lessons, we have chosen This sequence happens continuously all day long as each
to use Daniel Goleman’s model with four domains: self feeling comes into the picture. The importance of
awareness, self-management, social awareness and self-awareness is to better understand that these feelings are
relationship management. This was originally developed in constantly coming and going and it is important to deal with
1998 with five domains and redesigned in 2002 with four them in an appropriate manner.
domains. Each domain has the connected competencies listed It is equally important to be able to evaluate how this impacts
inside the boxes. The following pages briefly provide some the moods and emotions of others.
background on each domain in the quadrant.
Self-Management
Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Quadrant • Emotional self-control
Daniel Goleman has done a lot of work in the space of EI and • Transparency
his Emotional Intelligence model with the four domains of • Adaptability
self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and • Achievement
• Initiative Relationship Management
• Optimism • Inspirational leadership
• Influence
Self-Management, or self-regulation, can be defined as the • Developing others
ability to manage one’s actions, thoughts, and feelings in • Change catalyst
flexible ways to get the desired results. Optimal self-regulation • Conflict management
contributes to a sense of well-being, a sense of self-efficacy or • Building bonds
confidence, and a sense of connectedness to others. The goal • Teamwork and collaboration
is for a self-regulating individual to be able to take his or her The ability to take one’s own emotions, the emotions of others,
emotional responses as cues for both action and coping and the context to manage social interactions successfully.
effectively in relationships. It is important to have an This quadrant pulls together the other 3
understanding of self-awareness first in order for this to be dimensions and creates the final product – relationship
possible. Emotions can swamp the brain causing feelings of management. Often if we have the other three dimensions
frustration and overwhelming thoughts. This figured out, this will flow more naturally. This can be known as
is due to what Goleman (1995) calls an “amygdala hijack”. The “friendliness with a purpose” or getting desired responses
amygdala is the area in the brain when working with others. This can be very depending on the
that is the center for the emotions and emotional behavior. This situation and this is why this dimension actually has 7
area of the brain goes into overdrive causing high activity competencies that fall under it that all have to do with
causing us to focus and obsess about whatever is causing our relationships.
distress. It makes it very difficult to be able to think about
anything else. For example, you are working with your fellow Relationship management can be used to influence those
teen leaders on planning an upcoming camp. Another around us to make a good decision. We can sense other’s
counselor takes credit for your idea when sharing with the reactions to the situation and fine-tune our response to move
group. You get so focused on the unfairness of this that you the interaction in a positive direction. It is critical that this is a
miss what was said in the rest of the planning session. genuine attempt to
help everyone reach the best possible outcome and not to ever
become an act of manipulation for self-interest. Another
example of relationship management is dealing
specifically with the conflict of others. Those strong in this area
can see that conflict is forming and take steps to move others
away from this in a more positive interaction. Listening and
empathizing are critical skills to deal with these often difficult
conversations.

6.​ LEARNING STYLES OF FELDER AND SILVERMAN

What Is A Learning Style?
Do you learn best by hearing someone talk? Or is it easier to
learn when you are shown an image or diagram? Do you
usually focus on the whole, or rather on the individual parts of
something when learning? Your answers to these questions
probably indicate your learning style.

A learning style is simply the manner in which one learns best.

It's based on individual characteristics and preferences.
Individual learning styles are important to consider in effective
Social Awareness teaching because different students learn in different ways.
• Empathy
• Organizational awareness Now that we understand what a learning style is, let's take a
• Service look at the Felder-Silverman learning styles model.
Social Awareness is the ability to accurately notice the
emotions of others and “read” situations appropriately. It is LEARNING STYLES OF FELDER AND SILVERMAN
about sensing what other people are thinking and feeling to be
able to take their perspective using your capacity for empathy. Within this learning style of Felder and Silverman, called the
Goleman explains, our ability actually comes from neurons in Index of Learning Styles, there are a potential of 32 different
an extended circuitry connected to the amygdala. learning style combinations. The different styles are created
through choosing one option or the other. For instance,
They read another person’s face, voice, etc. for emotion and sensory/visual/active/global. It is important to remember that
help direct us how we should speak to them. “Empathy refers although everyone has a preference toward one end of the
to the cognitive and emotional processes that bind people spectrum or the other, everyone will use both sides at times.
together in various kinds of relationships that permit sharing
experiences as
well as understanding of others” (Eslinger, 2007). Our brains
take note how the other person responded and the amygdala
and connected circuits keep us in an interpersonal loop of
emotional connection. In order to do this, we must have
already become aware of the emotions of others around us
and the circumstances that impacted them. Social awareness
is all about noticing the person in the room that is frustrated by
the task at
hand and responding in a way that can prevent further
negative emotions.
 Interestingly, Felder and Silverman share that every individual
Active/Reflective will use both sensing and intuitive at varying times despite
Preference on how to process new information having an inclination toward one preference or the other.

This continuum is based on the works of Kolb who called them Sequential/Global
active experimentation and Preference on how information is organized and understood
reflective observation.
The sequential learner will learn in a sequential and methodical
Active learners prefer to be doing or external manipulation of thinking. They are linear in their
content. They will retain information best when they are using approach, tending to organize their approach in small steps.
hands-on applications and doing something with the They are logical in their problem-solving and learning. This
information. This can be as simple as discussing or teaching learning preference can start with pieces of information and
the information to others. The move to a bigger picture without needing all of it at one time
active learner also prefers more group interactions and social with a steady progression of
learning or collaboration. Difficulty.

Reflective learners tend to be more introspective. They are Global preference is more holistic. This approach will look at
quiet, solitary learners who learn best by thinking through the whole picture and pull it down into smaller steps. This type
information. They can, however, process information with the of learner will grab information in spurts with a random and
help of a partner, but definitely not in a group. They will seemingly disconnected data and then puts it together. They
examine and investigate information through inward are quick to look at and solve
introspection. This type of learner needs time to process complex information with innovative approaches. In contrast to
information quietly before sharing or expressing their thoughts the sequential learner, the global
on the matter. learner needs the big picture first before being able to move to
the details.
Visual/Verbal
Preference on how information is presented 7.​ MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES OF HOWARD
Felder and Silverman recognize the origins of the VAK theory GARDNER
and the value of the kinesthetic learner. However,
Felder/Silverman did not emphasize the kinesthetic learner WHAT IS MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES?
feeling it was not relevant to the engineering students. Multiple intelligences is a theory developed by psychologist
Howard Gardner in 1983, which suggests
Visual learners are going to prefer visual means to learn such that intelligence is not a single, fixed attribute but rather a
as diagrams, graphs, pictures and even demonstrations. This collection of distinct types of intelligences
type of learner generally struggles in traditional learning that individuals may possess. This theory has significantly
centers as the information is more likely to be given through influenced educational practices and our
audio means such as lectures. understanding of human potential.
ABOUT THE PROPONENT:
Verbal learners are referred to as the audio learner in the VAK Name: Howard Earl Gardner
model. They are going to excel in learning situations that are Born: July 11, 1943 (age 81 years), Scranton, Pennsylvania,
focused on hearing such as discussions, listening or United States.
explanations. Education: Howard Gardner completed most of his formal
education at Harvard University. He earned
They will get the most of their learning through words. his bachelor's degree in social relations in 1965 and went on to
Note that this theory emphasizes that the best learners are obtain a Ph.D. in developmental
those that can process presented information through either psychology in 1971.
verbal or visual means. Gardner has held various academic positions, including being
the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs
Sensing/Intuitive Research Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard
Preference to perceive or how information is taken in Graduate School of Education, where
he continues to influence the field of education through his
These preferences are based off of the works of Carl Jung who research and teachings.
identified the continuum between sensing and intuition. This As of now, Howard Gardner is alive, and continues to be active
continuum is seen in other learning styles as well. in his research and academic work at
Harvard University.
Sensing preference learns best by focusing on facts and data.
They are a procedural, methodical learner who prefers TOPIC:
logistics. They like details and doing more hands-on Howard Gardner initially identified six intelligences as part of
application type of work which leads them to be more details his theory to provide a more comprehensive understanding of
oriented. They prefer information that has a real-world human capabilities beyond the traditional view of intelligence,
application based on proven problem-solving methodologies. which often focused solely on linguistic and
Since this preference tends to be more methodical, they also logical-mathematical skills. His early work in psychology and
tend to be slower and more careful learners. human cognition led him to recognize that individuals possess
a variety of distinct types of intelligences that reflect different
Intuitive learners prefer the conceptual and theory. They look ways of processing information and solving problems.
for innovative and interesting ways
to apply information. They like new information and quickly The initial six intelligences he identified included linguistic,
process this new information. They also like to look at abstract logical-mathematical, musical, spatial,
content. This preference tends to be quick, fast and swift to bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal intelligences. Each of
assimilate new information. these intelligences highlights different skills and talents,
emphasizing that people learn and express their intelligence in
various ways.
 hand or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products. It
Gardner later expanded his theory to include additional includes physical coordination,
intelligences, such as intrapersonal and naturalistic balance, dexterity, strength, and flexibility. People with high
intelligence, reflecting his belief that there may be even more bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good
forms of intelligence beyond those he initially identified. at sports, dance, acting, and physical crafts.
People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael
THE EIGHT INTELLIGENCES: Jordan, can use one’s own body to create
products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind–body
LINGUISTICS INTELLIGENCE (WORD SMART) union.
Linguistic Intelligence, deals with sensitivity to the spoken and TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR BODILY
written language, ability to learn KINESTHETIC LEARNERS:
languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain A fun way to teach new vocabulary is through a game of
goals. charades. Students can act out verbs or
concepts while others guess what they are.
People with linguistic intelligence, such as William MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE (MUSIC SMART)
Shakespeare, have the ability to analyze Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance,
information and create products involving oral and written composition, and appreciation of musical
language, such as speeches, books, and patterns. It involves the ability to perceive, discriminate, create,
Memos. and express musical forms.
People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR LINGUISTICS Sheeran, have the ability to recognize and
LEARNERS: create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR MUSICAL
Using YouTube videos. This technology enables students to INTELLIGENCE LEARNERS:
engage with video content actively, as Encourage students to connect their lessons with music by
they can watch videos with transcripts and subtitles, enhancing having them create a poem or song related
their comprehension and language to the topic they are studying.
Skills. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE (PEOPLE SMART)
Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the
LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE intentions, motivations, and desires of
(NUMBER/REASONING SMART) other people and, consequently, to work effectively with others.
Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand and
analyze problems logically, carry out interact effectively with others. It
mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. includes sensitivity to other people’s moods, temperaments,
motivations, and desires.
People with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma
Einstein, have an ability to develop Gandhi, have the ability to recognize and
equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and
problems. intentions.
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE LEARNERS:
LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL LEARNERS: Assign group projects where students must collaborate to
achieve a common goal. This could involve
Engaging in various puzzles, such as Sudoku, crosswords, or research, presentations, or creative tasks. Working together
logic grid puzzles, can significantly allows them to practice negotiation,
improve logical reasoning skills. leadership, and conflict resolution skills.
INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE (SELF-SMART)
Create math challenges that involve real-world scenarios. For Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself,
example, ask learners to calculate the to have an effective working model
total cost of items in a shopping list. of oneself, including one’s desires, fears, and capacities—and
to use such information effectively in
SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (PICTURE SMART) regulating one’s own life.
Spatial intelligence involves the ability to perceive the It includes self-awareness, personal cognizance, and the ability
visual-spatial world accurately. It includes the to refine, analyze, and articulate one’s
ability to transform, modify, or manipulate visual information. emotional life.
People with high spatial intelligence People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle, have
are good at visualization, drawing, sense of direction, puzzle the ability to recognize and understand
building, and reading maps. his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
People with spatial intelligence, such as Amelia Earhart, have
the ability to recognize and manipulate TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR
large-scale and fine-grained spatial images. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE LEARNERS:
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR SPATIAL
LEARNERS: Encourage students to keep a personal journal where they can
Tools like Google Earth allow students to explore geographical express their thoughts, feelings, and
data and spatial relationships. These experiences. This activity promotes self-reflection and helps
platforms can help learners understand concepts related to them articulate their inner experiences.
geography, urban planning, and They can write about daily events, personal goals, or
environmental science through visual exploration. reflections on their learning processes.
BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE (BODY SMART)
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE (NATURE SMART)
whole body or parts of the body (like the
Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to recognize, based in operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and
categorize, and draw upon patterns in the Human
natural environment. It includes sensitivity to the flora, fauna, Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of
and phenomena in nature. People with operant conditioning function in
high naturalist intelligence are good at classifying natural social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics
forms. and education.
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before
People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin, him in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors
have the ability to identify and used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came
distinguish among different types of plants, animals, and to be known as Operant Conditioning.
weather formations that are found in the
natural world. Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is
a result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are
TECHNOLOGY/ACTIVITY IN TEACHING FOR the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that
NATURALISTIC LEARNERS: occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving
Conduct nature walks where students are given specific a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R)
observation challenges, such as identifying pattern is
different types of leaves, birds, or insects. This encourages reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.
them to pay attention to details and
enhances their categorization and classification skills. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A
reinforcer is anything that
CHALLENGES OF TEACHING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES strengthens the desired response. There is a positive
LEARNERS reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

1. Diverse Learning Styles A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to
Students possess varying types of intelligences, such as increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, and when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children
interpersonal, among others. This diversity means that a single who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who
teaching method may not effectively promises a new cellphone for her son who gets good grades.
reach all learners. Educators must constantly adapt their Still, other examples include verbal phrases, star stamps, and
strategies to accommodate these stickers.
differences, which can be time-consuming and complex.
A negative reinforce is any stimulus that results in the
2. Balancing Instruction increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or
Teachers often find it challenging to balance instruction across removed. A negative reinforce is not a punishment, in fact it is
all intelligences. Historically, a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student
education has prioritized verbal-linguistic and who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods
mathematical-logical intelligences, leaving other types will no longer take the final examination, the negative reinforce
underrepresented. This imbalance can lead to disengagement is “removing” the
among students who excel in other final exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working
areas, making it essential for teachers to ensure that all hard and getting an average grade
intelligences are addressed in their lessons. of 1.5.

3. Classroom Management A negative reinforce is different from a punishment because a

Managing a classroom with students who have different punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced
intelligences can complicate lesson planning responses. An example would be a student who always comes
and execution. late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began
(punishment) and
4. Assessment Difficulties therefore, loses points for that activity. The punishment was
Evaluating student performance can be problematic when done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class
using a multiple intelligences framework. late.
Traditional assessments often fail to capture the strengths of Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement:
students who may excel in non- Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated.
traditional areas. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish
that behavior.
5. Teacher Preparedness Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very
Many educators may not have received different training in the long time to figure out that pressing
theory of multiple intelligences, a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior,
leading to uncertainty in how to implement it effectively. This successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until
lack of preparedness can hinder their the animal learns the association between the lever and the
ability to create an inclusive learning environment that food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded
recognizes and nurtures the various for simply turning in the direction of the
intelligences present in their classrooms. lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the
lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
8.​ Burrhus Frederick Skinner Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are
needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in
Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be
stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory applied to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can
zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of
any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. tying the shoelace is learned.
Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral that described the stages that children pass through in the
response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be development of intelligence and formal thought processes.
100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through
what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. The four stages of Piaget's theory are as follows:
Partial reinforcement
schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. Sensorimotor stage: The first stage of development lasts
from birth to approximately age 2. At this point in development,
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced children know the world primarily through their senses and
after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last movements.
reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food Preoperational stage: The second stage of development lasts
(reinforce) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many times it from the ages of 2 to 7 and is characterized by the
presses the bar. development of language and the emergence of symbolic play.
Concrete operational stage: The third stage of cognitive
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval development lasts from the age of 7 to approximately age 11.
schedules but the amount of time that must pass between At this point, logical thought emerges, but children still struggle
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food with abstract and
(reinforce) different intervals, not every ten minutes. theoretical thinking.
Formal operational stage: In the fourth and final stage of
cognitive development, lasting from age 12 and into adulthood,
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses children become much more adept at abstract thought and
must occur before reinforcement deductive reasoning.
may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforce)
everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of
the correct response for reinforcement varies, example, the
bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times,
then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be
able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before
it gets food again.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules

produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because the learners cannot
predict when the reinforcement will
come although they know that they will eventually succeed. An
example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets even
when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win.
While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in
a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People
cannot predict when the jackpot can be gotten (variable
interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of
response).

Implication of Operant Conditioning. These implications are

given for programmed
instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) –
answer (response) frames which
expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame
and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response
is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with
secondary reinforcers such as
verbal praise, prizes and good grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly
effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that
responses can be reinforced
(“shaping”).
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli
(“stimulus generalization”) producing
secondary conditioning.

9.​ Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Today, Jean Piaget is best known for his research on children's
cognitive development. Piaget studied the intellectual
development of his own three children and created a theory