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RHCSA/RHCE
®

Red Hat Linux Certification

® ®

Study Guide, Seventh Edition

(Exams EX200 & EX300)

Michael Jang
Alessandro Orsaria

This study/training guide and/or material is not sponsored by, endorsed by, or
affiliated with Red Hat, Inc. in any manner. Red Hat®, Red Hat® Enterprise Linux®,
RHCE™, RHCSA™, and the Red Hat logo and Red Hat “Shadowman” logo are
trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc. in the United States and certain
other countries. All other trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners.
This publication and DVD-ROM may be used in assisting students to prepare for a Red New York Chicago San Francisco
Hat RHCSA or RHCE certification exam. Neither Red Hat nor McGraw-Hill warrants that Athens London Madrid Mexico City
use of this publication and DVD-ROM will ensure passing any exam. Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress

McGraw-Hill Education books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales
promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us
pages at www.mhprofessional.com.

RHCSA/RHCE® Red Hat® Linux® Certification Study Guide, Seventh Edition (Exams EX200 & EX300)

Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of publisher, with the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a
computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.
All trademarks or copyrights mentioned herein are the possession of their respective owners and McGraw-Hill
Education makes no claim of ownership by the mention of products that contain these marks.
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of set 978-0-07-184196-2
MHID: Book p/n 0-07-184193-8 and DVD p/n 0-07-184195-4
of set 0-07-184196-2

Sponsoring Editor Copy Editor Illustration

Timothy Green Bart Reed Cenveo Publisher Services

Editorial Supervisor Proofreader Art Director, Cover

Jody McKenzie Lisa McCoy Jeff Weeks

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 For the young widows and widowers:
may they find the courage to face their fears,
to navigate their way through the pain,
and to find hope for a brighter future.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Michael Jang (RHCE, LPIC-2, UCP, LCP, Linux+, MCP) is currently a Senior Technical
Writer for ForgeRock. His experience with computers goes back to the days of jumbled
punch cards. He has written other books on Linux certification, including LPIC-1 in
Depth, Mike Meyers’ Linux+ Certification Passport, and Sair GNU/Linux Installation and
Configuration Exam Cram. His other Linux books include Linux Annoyances for Geeks,
Linux Patch Management, and Mastering Fedora Core Linux 5. He has also written or
contributed to books on Microsoft operating systems, including MCSE Guide to Microsoft
Windows 98 and Mastering Windows XP Professional, Second Edition.
Alessandro Orsaria (RHCE, RHCA, CCIE x 2) is an IT professional with more than 15
years’ experience in the industry. He has authored articles for technical Linux magazines
and is currently employed by a global equity hedge fund as an IT Infrastructure Architect.
Alessandro is Red Hat RHCE and RHCA certified and has achieved two Cisco CCIE
certifications in Routing & Switching and Datacenter. He holds an MBA from Imperial
College of London and a degree in physics.

About the Technical Editor

Alex Davies works for a proprietary trading firm, where he is responsible for Linux systems
and manages a team of Linux engineers across Chicago, New York, London, and Singapore.
Alex is the author of MySQL Clustering and MySQL High Availability Cookbook. Earlier
in his career he was both RHCE and RHCA certified and received the RHCE of the Year
award in 2009 from Red Hat. Alex also holds a degree in economics from the University of
Durham.
CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

1 Prepare for Red Hat Hands-on Certifications .................................. 1

2 Virtual Machines and Automated Installations ................................ 55

3 Fundamental Command-Line Skills .............................................. 115

4 RHCSA-Level Security Options ................................................... 175

5 The Boot Process ..................................................................... 241

6 Linux Filesystem Administration ................................................. 285

7 Package Management ............................................................... 343

8 User Administration ................................................................. 395

9 RHCSA-Level System Administration Tasks ................................... 443

10 A Security Primer . ................................................................... 479

11 System Services and SELinux ...................................................... 537

12 RHCE Administrative Tasks ....................................................... 579

13 Network Services: DNS, SMTP, iSCSI, and NTP . ............................. 631

14 The Apache Web Server ............................................................ 679

15 The Samba File Server ............................................................... 733

16 NFS Secured with Kerberos ........................................................ 773

17 The MariaDB Server ................................................................. 807

A Prepare a System for the Sample Exams ......................................... 843

B Sample Exam 1: RHCSA ............................................................ 847

C Sample Exam 2: RHCSA ............................................................ 851

v
vi RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide

D Sample Exam 3: RHCE Sample Exam 1 .......................................... 855

E Sample Exam 4: RHCE Sample Exam 2 .......................................... 861

F About the DVD . ...................................................................... 865

Glossary ................................................................................ 867

Index .................................................................................... 883

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ...................................................................... xxv

Preface .......... .......................................................................... xxvii
Introduction ... .......................................................................... xxxviii

1 Prepare for Red Hat Hands-on Certifications .................. 1

The RHCSA and RHCE Exams .................................................... 4
The Exam Experience . ................................................... 5
The RHCSA Exam ........................................................ 5
The RHCE Exam .......................................................... 6
If You’re Studying “Just” for the RHCSA Exam ...................... 6
Evolving Requirements ................................................... 6
Basic Hardware Requirements . ................................................... 7
Hardware Compatibility ................................................. 7
Architectures ............................................................... 8
RAM Requirements ...................................................... 8
Hard Drive Options ....................................................... 9
Networking ................................................................. 9
Virtual Machine Options ................................................ 10
Get Red Hat Enterprise Linux ..................................................... 11
Purchase a Subscription ................................................. 11
Get an Evaluation Copy . . ................................................ 12
Third-party Rebuilds ..................................................... 12
Check the Download . .................................................... 13
Installation Requirements .......................................................... 13
You Won’t Start from Scratch ........................................... 14
The Advantages of Network Installation ............................. 14
Red Hat and Virtual Machines ......................................... 15
Virtual and Physical Systems ............................................ 15
A Pre-installed Environment for Practice Labs ..................... 15
System Roles ............................................................... 16
Installation Options ................................................................. 18
Boot Media ................................................................. 18
CD/DVD or Boot USB Starts Installation . ........................... 19
Basic Installation Steps .. ................................................. 20

vii
viii RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide

The Installation Perspective on Partitions ........................... 25

Partition Creation Exercise .............................................. 28
Exercise 1-1: Partitioning During Installation . ................... 30
Wow, Look at All That Software! ...................................... 32
Baseline Packages ......................................................... 34
Package Groups ........................................................... 34
During the Installation ................................................... 35
System Setup Options ............................................................... 36
Initial Setup and Firstboot ............................................... 37
Default Security Settings ................................................ 37
Special Setup Options for Virtual Machines . . ....................... 38
Configure Default File Sharing Services ......................................... 39
Mount and Copy the Installation DVD ............................... 40
Set Up a Default Configuration Apache Server ..................... 40
Exercise 1-2: Configure Apache as an Installation Server ...... 42
Share Copied Files via FTP Server . .................................... 43
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 45
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 46
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 48
Lab Questions ............................................................. 49
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 52
Lab Answers ............................................................... 53

2 Virtual Machines and Automated Installations ............... 55

Configure KVM for Red Hat ....................................................... 56
Why Virtual Machines ................................................... 57
If You Have to Install KVM ............................................. 58
The Right KVM Modules ................................................ 59
Configure the Virtual Machine Manager . . ........................... 60
Configuration by Hypervisor . .......................................... 61
Virtual Networks on a Hypervisor ..................................... 62
Exercise 2-1: Create a Second Virtual Network .................. 63
Configure a Virtual Machine on KVM ........................................... 68
Configure a Virtual Machine on KVM ................................ 68
Exercise 2-2: Add Virtual Hard Drives ............................. 73
KVM Configuration Files ................................................ 75
Control Virtual Machines from the Command Line . .............. 76
Automated Installation Options .................................................. 80
Kickstart Concepts ........................................................ 81
Set Up Local Access to Kickstart ....................................... 81
Set Up Network Access to Kickstart .................................. 83
 Contents ix

Sample Kickstart File ..................................................... 83

Exercise 2-3: Create and Use a Sample Kickstart File ........... 89
The Kickstart Configurator . ............................................ 90
Administration with the Secure Shell and Secure Copy ...................... 95
Configure an SSH Client ................................................. 95
Command-Line Access .................................................. 96
More SSH Command-Line Tools ...................................... 97
Graphical Secure Shell Access .......................................... 97
Consider Adding These Command-Line Tools ................................ 98
Checking Ports with telnet .............................................. 99
Checking Ports with nmap .............................................. 100
Configure an E-mail Client .............................................. 100
The Use of Text and Graphical Browsers . . ........................... 102
Using lftp to Access URLs . .............................................. 103
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 105
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 105
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 107
Lab Questions ............................................................. 108
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 110
Lab Answers ............................................................... 111

3 Fundamental Command-Line Skills ............................. 115

Shells ................................................................................... 118
Other Shells ................................................................ 119
Virtual Terminals .......................................................... 119
GUI Shell Interfaces ...................................................... 120
Differences Between Regular and Administrative Users .......... 121
Text Streams and Command Redirection . ........................... 121
Standard Command-Line Tools . . ................................................. 122
File and Directory Concepts ............................................ 123
File Lists and ls ............................................................. 126
File-Creation Commands ................................................ 127
Wildcards ................................................................... 130
File Searches . .............................................................. 130
The Management of Text Files . ................................................... 131
Commands to Read Text Streams ...................................... 132
Commands to Process Text Streams .................................. 134
Edit Text Files at the Console . .......................................... 137
Exercise 3-1: Using vi to Create a New User ...................... 139
If You Don’t Like vi ....................................................... 141
Edit Text Files in the GUI . . .............................................. 141
x RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide

Local Online Documentation ...................................................... 142

When You Need Help . ................................................... 142
A Variety of man Pages .................................................. 143
The info Manuals ......................................................... 145
Detailed Documentation in /usr/share/doc .......................... 146
A Networking Primer ............................................................... 146
IPv4 Networks ............................................................. 146
Networks and Routing ................................................... 147
Tools and Commands . ................................................... 148
Network Configuration and Troubleshooting .................................. 154
Network Configuration Files .. .......................................... 155
Network Configuration Tools .......................................... 158
Exercise 3-2: Configure a Network Card .......................... 161
Configure Name Resolution ............................................ 164
Hostname Configuration Files .......................................... 165
Hostname Configuration Options . .................................... 166
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 167
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 168
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 170
Lab Questions ............................................................. 171
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 172
Lab Answers ............................................................... 173

4 RHCSA-Level Security Options . . ................................. 175

Basic File Permissions ............................................................... 178
File Permissions and Ownership ....................................... 178
Commands to Change Permissions and Ownership ............... 181
Basic User and Group Concepts ....................................... 184
Access Control Lists and More .................................................... 186
The getfacl Command ................................................... 186
Make a Filesystem ACL Friendly ....................................... 187
Manage ACLs on a File .................................................. 188
Configure a Directory for ACLs ........................................ 190
Configure Default ACLs ................................................. 191
ACLs and Masks .......................................................... 192
Exercise 4-1: Use ACLs to Deny a User ............................ 192
NFS Shares and ACLs .................................................... 193
Basic Firewall Control ............................................................... 195
Standard Ports ............................................................. 196
A Focus on iptables ....................................................... 196
Keep That Firewall in Operation . . ..................................... 198
 Contents xi

The iptables Service ...................................................... 199

The firewalld Service . .................................................... 201
Exercise 4-2: Adjust Firewall Settings .............................. 206
Securing SSH with Key-Based Authentication ................................. 207
SSH Configuration Commands ........................................ 208
SSH Client Configuration Files ......................................... 208
Basic Encrypted Communication ...................................... 209
Set Up a Private/Public Pair for Key-Based Authentication ...... 210
A Security-Enhanced Linux Primer .............................................. 213
Basic Features of SELinux ............................................... 213
SELinux Status ............................................................. 213
SELinux Configuration at the Command Line ...................... 215
Configure Basic SELinux Settings ..................................... 215
Configure Regular Users for SELinux ................................. 216
Manage SELinux Boolean Settings .................................... 218
List and Identify SELinux File Contexts .............................. 219
Restore SELinux File Contexts ......................................... 220
Identify SELinux Process Contexts .................................... 222
Diagnose and Address SELinux Policy Violations . ................. 223
The GUI SELinux Administration Tool .............................. 225
The SELinux Troubleshoot Browser .................................. 229
Exercise 4-3: Test a SELinux User Type ........................... 230
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 232
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 232
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 234
Lab Questions ............................................................. 236
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 236
Lab Answers ............................................................... 238

5 The Boot Process ................................................... 241

The BIOS and the UEFI ............................................................. 243
Basic System Configuration ............................................. 243
Startup Menus ............................................................. 244
Access to Linux Bootloaders ............................................ 244
Bootloaders and GRUB 2 ........................................................... 245
GRUB, the GRand Unified Bootloader ............................... 246
Exercise 5-1: Boot into a Different Target ......................... 248
Exercise 5-2: Recover the Root Password ......................... 249
Modify the System Bootloader ......................................... 250
How to Update GRUB .................................................... 253
The GRUB 2 Command Line . .......................................... 253
xii RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide

Exercise 5-3: Using the GRUB 2 Command Line ................ 255

Reinstall GRUB 2 . . ........................................................ 256
An Option for Booting from GRUB 2: Rescue Mode .............. 256
Between GRUB 2 and Login . ...................................................... 259
Kernels and the Initial RAM Disk ..................................... 260
The First Process, Targets, and Units ................................. 261
Switch Between Targets .................................................. 263
Reboot and Shut Down a System Normally .. ........................ 264
systemd Replaces Upstart and SysVinit ............................... 264
systemd Units .............................................................. 267
Virtual Terminals and Login Screens .................................. 270
Control by Target .................................................................... 270
Functionality by Target .................................................. 271
The Innards of systemd Units .......................................... 271
Service Configuration . ................................................... 273
Time Synchronization ............................................................... 274
Time Zone Configuration . .............................................. 275
Sync the Time with chronyd ............................................ 276
Sync the Time with ntpd ................................................. 276
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 277
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 278
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 279
Lab Questions ............................................................. 281
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 281
Lab Answers ............................................................... 282

6 Linux Filesystem Administration ................................ 285

Storage Management and Partitions ............................................. 287
Current System State . .................................................... 287
The fdisk Utility ........................................................... 288
The gdisk Utility ........................................................... 296
The parted Utility . ........................................................ 297
Using parted: Starting, Getting Help, and Quitting ................ 298
Graphical Options ........................................................ 302
Exercise 6-1: Work with fdisk and parted ......................... 304
Filesystem Formats .................................................................. 305
Standard Formatting Filesystems ...................................... 306
Journaling Filesystems ................................................... 307
Filesystem Format Commands ......................................... 307
Swap Volumes ............................................................. 308
Filesystem Check Commands .......................................... 309
 Contents xiii

Exercise 6-2: Format, Check, and Mount Different

Filesystems .............................................................. 309
Basic Linux Filesystems and Directories ........................................ 310
Separate Linux Filesystems .............................................. 310
Directories That Can Be Mounted Separately ....................... 312
Logical Volume Management (LVM) ............................................ 313
Definitions in LVM ....................................................... 313
Create a Physical Volume ................................................ 314
Create a Volume Group .................................................. 314
Create a Logical Volume ................................................. 315
Make Use of a Logical Volume ......................................... 315
More LVM Commands .................................................. 315
Remove a Logical Volume . .............................................. 318
Resize Logical Volumes .................................................. 319
Filesystem Management ............................................................ 320
The /etc/fstab File ......................................................... 320
Universally Unique Identifiers in /etc/fstab . . ........................ 322
The mount Command ................................................... 323
More Filesystem Mount Options ...................................... 324
Virtual Filesystems ........................................................ 325
Add Your Own Filesystems to /etc/fstab ............................. 325
Removable Media and /etc/fstab ....................................... 326
Networked Filesystems .................................................. 327
The Automounter .................................................................... 328
Mounting via the Automounter ........................................ 328
Exercise 6-3: Configure the Automounter ........................ 332
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 334
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 334
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 336
Lab Questions ............................................................. 337
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 338
Lab Answers ............................................................... 339

7 Package Management ............................................ 343

The Red Hat Package Manager .................................................... 344
What Is a Package? .. ...................................................... 345
What Is the RPM Database? ............................................ 345
What Is a Repository? .................................................... 346
Install an RPM Package . ................................................. 347
Uninstall an RPM Package .............................................. 348
Install RPMs from Remote Systems ................................... 349
xiv RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide

RPM Installation Security ............................................... 350

Special RPM Procedures with the Kernel . ........................... 350
More RPM Commands ............................................................. 353
Package Queries . .......................................................... 353
Package Signatures . . ...................................................... 354
File Verification . . .......................................................... 355
Dependencies and the yum Command .......................................... 357
An Example of Dependency Hell ...................................... 357
Relief from Dependency Hell ........................................... 359
Basic yum Configuration ................................................ 360
The Basic yum Configuration File: yum.conf . . ...................... 361
Configuration Files in the /etc/yum/pluginconf.d Directory ..... 362
Configuration Files in the /etc/yum.repos.d Directory . ........... 363
Create Your Own /etc/yum.repos.d Configuration File ........... 365
Exercise 7-1: Create a yum Repository
from the RHEL 7 DVD ............................................... 368
Third-party Repositories ................................................ 369
Basic yum Commands ................................................... 370
Installation Mode . ........................................................ 371
Security and yum .......................................................... 372
Updates and Security Fixes .............................................. 373
Package Groups and yum ................................................ 373
More yum Commands ................................................... 376
More Package Management Tools ................................................ 379
The GNOME Software Update Tool . ................................. 380
Automated Updates ...................................................... 381
GNOME Software Tool .................................................. 381
Exercise 7-2: Installing More with yum
and the GNOME Software Tool .................................... 382
Red Hat Subscription Manager .. ....................................... 383
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 385
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 386
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 387
Lab Questions ............................................................. 389
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 389
Lab Answers ............................................................... 391

8 User Administration ............................................... 395

User Account Management ........................................................ 397
Different Kinds of Users ................................................. 397
The Shadow Password Suite ............................................ 398
 Contents xv

Command-Line Tools . ................................................... 403

Exercise 8-1 ................................................................ 406
Add a User with the Red Hat User Manager ......................... 406
Exercise 8-2: Real and Fake Shells .................................. 407
Modify an Account ....................................................... 407
More User and Group Management Commands ................... 409
Administrative Control ............................................................. 411
The Ability to Log In as root ............................................ 411
Exercise 8-3: Limit root Logins . . .................................... 412
The Ability to Log In ..................................................... 413
The Proper Use of the su Command .................................. 413
Limit Access to su ......................................................... 414
The Proper Use of the sg Command .................................. 414
Custom Administrators with the sudo Command .................. 415
Other Administrative Users ............................................. 416
User and Shell Configuration ...................................................... 416
Home Directories and /etc/skel ........................................ 417
Exercise 8-4: Another Way to Secure a System .................. 419
Shell Configuration Files in User Home Directories ............... 420
Login, Logout, and User Switching .................................... 420
Users and Network Authentication .............................................. 421
LDAP Client Configuration . ............................................ 423
The Name Service Switch File .......................................... 425
The System Security Service Daemon ................................ 425
Red Hat Network Authentication Tools .............................. 426
Special Groups ........................................................................ 432
Standard and Red Hat Groups . . ........................................ 432
Shared Directories ........................................................ 432
Exercise 8-5: Control Group Ownership
with the SGID Bit ...................................................... 433
Certification Summary . . ................................................. 435
✓ Two-Minute Drill ......................................................... 436
Q&A Self Test ..................................................................... 437
Lab Questions ............................................................. 439
Self Test Answers .......................................................... 439
Lab Answers ............................................................... 440

9 RHCSA-Level System Administration Tasks .................... 443

Elementary System Administration Commands ............................... 444
System Resource Management Commands .. ........................ 445
Archives and Compression .............................................. 454
Other documents randomly have
different content
 of greater dignity ii. 37.
Society) advantages of i. 237. 238. 240.
Soliloquy) has a foundation in nature ii. 123.
Soliloquies ii. 218. &c.
Sorrow) cause of it i. 65.
Sounds) concordant i. 151.
discordant i. 152.
produce emotions that resemble them i. 218.
articulate how far agreeable to the ear ii. 240.
A smooth sound sooths the mind, and a rough sound animates ii. 245.
Space) natural computation of space i. 211. &c.
Species) defined iii. 399.
Specific habit) defined ii. 95.
Speech) power of speech to raise emotions, whence derived i. 112. 121.
Spondee ii. 364. &c. ii. 459.
Square) its beauty i. 251.
Stairs) their proportion iii. 323.
Standard) of taste ch. 25. iii. 351.
Standard of morals iii. 367.
Star) in gardening iii. 307.
Statue) the reason why a statue is not coloured i. 372.
An equestrian statue is placed in a centre of streets
that it may be seen from many places at once iii. 201.
Statue of an animal pouring out water iii. 308.
of a water-god pouring water out of his urn iii. 350.
Strada) censured iii. 170.
Style) natural and inverted ii. 290. &c.
The beauties of a natural style ii. 332.
of an inverted style ii. 332.
Concise style a great ornament iii. 204.
Subject) may be conceived independent of any particular quality ii. 293.
Subject with respect to its qualities iii. 376.
Subject defined iii. 406.
Sublimity i. 264. &c.
Sublime in poetry i. 277.
Sublimity may be employed indirectly to sink the mind i. 300.
False sublime i. 303. 306.
Submission) natural foundation of submission to government i. 236.
Substance) defined iii. 406.
Substratum) defined iii. 376.
Succession) of perceptions and ideas i. 380. &c.
Superlatives) inferior writers deal in superlatives iii. 195.
Surprise) instantaneous i. 142. 321.
pleasant or painful according to circumstances i. 326. &c.
Surprise is the cause of contrast i. 359.
Surprise a silent passion ii. 205.
studied in Chinese gardens iii. 319.
Suspense) an uneasy state i. 205.
Sweet distress) explained i. 155.
Swift) his language always suited to his subject iii. 194.
has a peculiar energy of style iii. 198.
compared with Pope iii. 198.
Syllable ii. 239.
Syllables long and short ii. 363.
Sympathy) sympathetic emotion of virtue i. 70.
Sympathy i. 229.
attractive i. 230.
never low nor mean ii. 32.
the cement of society ii. 143.
Synthetic) and analytic methods of reasoning compared i. 31.
Tacitus) excells in drawing characters iii. 182.
his style comprehensive iii. 204.
Tasso) censured iii. 242.
Taste) in tasting we feel an impression upon the organ of sense iii. 380.
Taste in the fine arts compared with the moral sense i. 7.
its advantages i. 10. &c.
Delicacy of taste i. 136.
A low taste i. 276.
The foundation of a right and a wrong in taste iii. 358.
Taste in the fine arts as well as in morals
corrupted by voluptuousness iii. 370.
corrupted by love of riches iii. 370.
Taste never naturally bad or wrong iii. 372.
Aberrations from a true taste in the fine arts iii. 366.
Tautology) a blemish in writing iii. 205.
Temples) of Ancient and Modern Virtue in the gardens of Stow iii. 348.
Terence) censured iii. 288. 290.
Terror) arises sometimes to its utmost height instantaneously i. 143.
a silent passion ii. 205.
Objects that strike terror have a fine effect
in poetry and painting iii. 211.
The terror raised by tragedy explained iii. 228.
Theorem) general theorems agreeable i. 255.
Time) past time expressed as present i. 118.
Natural computation of time i. 200. &c.
Tone) of mind iii. 378.
Touch) in touching we feel an impression upon the organ of sense iii. 380.
Trachiniens) of Sophocles censured iii. 286.
Tragedy) modern tragedy censured ii. 155.
French tragedy censured ii. 159. Note. ii. 194.
The Greek tragedy accompanied with musical notes
to ascertain the pronunciation ii. 350.
Tragedy ch. 22. iii. 218.
in what respect it differs from an epic poem iii. 218.
distinguished into pathetic and moral iii. 221.
its good effects iii. 223.
compared with the epic as to the subjects proper for each iii. 225. 226.
how far it may borrow from history iii. 234.
rule for dividing it into acts iii. 236.
double plot in it iii. 251.
admits not supernatural events iii. 254.
its origin iii. 270.
Ancient tragedy a continued representation without interruption iii. 271.
Constitution of the modern drama iii. 273.
Trees) the best manner of placing them iii. 307.
Triangle) equilateral, its beauty i. 253.
Tribrachys ii. 459.
Trochæus ii. 459.
Tropes ch. 20. iii. 53.
Ugliness) proper and figurative iii. 388.
Unbounded prospect) disagreeable i. 366. Note.
Uniformity) apt to disgust by excess i. 253.
Uniformity and variety ch. 9. i. 380.
The melody ought to be uniform where the things
described are uniform ii. 411.
Uniformity defined iii. 390.
Unity) the three unities ch. 23. iii. 259.
of action iii. 260.
of time and of place ii. 267.
Unities of time and place not required in an epic poem iii. 268.
Strictly observed in the Greek tragedy iii. 272.
Unity of place in the ancient drama iii. 285.
Unities of place and time ought to be strictly observed
in each act of a modern play iii. 291.
Wherein the unity of a garden consists. iii. 304.
_Unumquodque eodem modo dissolvitur quo colligatum est_ i. 368.
Vanity) a disagreeable passion i. 134.
always appears mean ii. 34.
Variety) distinguished from novelty i. 329.
Variety ch. 9. i. 380.
Verbal antithesis) defined ii. 73. 268.
Versailles) gardens of iii. 310.
Verse) distinguished from prose ii. 353
Sapphic verse extremely melodious ii. 358.
Iambic less so ii. 358.
Structure of an hexameter line ii. 364.
Structure of English heroic verse ii. 382. 384.
English monosyllables arbitrary as to quantity ii. 383.
English heroic lines distinguished into four sorts ii. 421.
Latin hexameter compared with English rhyme ii. 441.
compared with blank verse ii. 442.
French heroic verse compared with hexameter and rhyme ii. 443.
The English language incapable of the melody of hexameter verse ii. 446.
For what subjects is rhyme proper ii. 447. &c.
Melody of rhyme ii. 449.
Melody of verse is so inchanting as to draw a veil
over gross imperfections ii. 457.
Verses composed in the shape of an axe or an egg iii. 310.
Violent action) ought to be excluded from the stage iii. 254.
Virgil) censured for want of connection i. 36. &c.
his verse extremely melodious ii. 357.
his versification criticised ii. 376.
censured iii. 179. 194. 246.
_Virgil travestie_) characterized ii. 41.
Voltaire) censured iii. 178. 236. 243.
Vowels ii. 238.
Walk) in a garden, whether it ought to be straight or waving iii. 311.
artificial walk elevated above the plain iii. 313.
Wall) that is not perpendicular occasions an uneasy feeling i. 218.
Water-fall i. 314.
Water-god) statue of, pouring out water iii. 350.
Way of the World) censured iii. 266.
the unities of place and time strictly observed in it iii. 293.
Will) how far our train of perceptions can be regulated by it i. 23. 381. 388.
determined by desire i. 222
Windows) their proportions iii. 323.
Wish) distinguished from desire i. 55.
Wit) defined i. 28. seldom united with judgement
i. 28. but generally with memory i. 28.
not concordant with grandeur i. 377.
Wit ch. 13. ii. 58.
Wonder) instantaneous i. 143.
Wonders and prodigies find ready credit with the vulgar i. 198.
Wonder i. 320.
studied in Chinese gardens iii. 319.
Words) play of ii. 228. &c.
jingle of ii. 231.
what are their best arrangement in a period ii. 251.
A conjunction or disjunction in the members of
the thought ought to be imitated in the expression ii. 260. 265.
Words expressing things connected ought to be
placed as near together as possible ii. 307. &c.
In what part of a sentence doth a word make the greatest figure ii. 318.
Words acquire a beauty from their meaning iii. 139.
The words ought to accord with the sentiment iii. 188.
 A word is often redoubled to add force to the expression iii. 201.
Writing) a subject intended for amusement may be highly ornamented ii. 9.
A grand subject appears best in a plain dress ii. 10.
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] See the Appendix, § 13.
[2] Du Bos judiciously observes, that silence doth not tend to calm an agitated
mind; but that soft and slow music hath a fine effect.
[3] A taste for natural objects is born with us in perfection. To relish a fine
countenance, a rich landscape, or a vivid colour, culture is unnecessary. The
observation holds equally in natural sounds, such as the singing of birds, or the
murmuring of a brook. Nature here, the artificer of the object as well as of the
percipient, hath suited them to each other with great accuracy. But of a poem, a
cantata, a picture, and other artificial productions, a true relish is not commonly
attained without study and practice.
[4] “Though logic may subsist without rhetoric or poetry, yet so necessary to these
last is a sound and correct logic, that without it they are no better than warbling
trifles.” Hermes, p. 6.
[5] Genius is allied to a warm and inflammable constitution, delicacy of taste to
calmness and sedateness. Hence it is common to find genius in one who is a prey to
every passion; which can scarce happen with respect to delicacy of taste. Upon a man
possessed of this blessing, the moral duties, as well as the fine arts, make a deep
impression, so as to counterbalance every irregular desire. And even supposing a
strong temptation, it can take no fast hold of a calm and sedate temper.
[6] For how should this be done? What object is it that we are to call up? If this
question can be answered, the object is already in the mind, and there is no occasion
to exert the power. If the question cannot be answered, I next demand, how it is
possible that a voluntary power can be exerted without any view of an object to exert
it upon? We cannot form a conception of such a thing. This argument appears to me
satisfactory: if it need confirmation, I urge experience. Whoever makes a trial will
find, that objects are linked together in the mind, forming a connected chain; and that
we have not the command of any object independent of the chain.
[7] A train of perceptions or ideas, with respect to its uniformity and variety, is
handled afterward, chap. 9.
[8] Lib. 2. ode 13.
[9] Lin. 231.
[10] Lin. 136.
[11] Lin. 475.
[12] Lib. 4. lin. 173.
[13] Part 1. sect. 4.
[14] Introduction.
 [15] Introduction.
[16] In tracing our emotions and passions to their origin, it once was my opinion,
that qualities and actions are the primary causes of emotions; and that these emotions
are afterward expanded upon the being to which these qualities and actions belong.
But I have discovered that opinion to be erroneous. An attribute is not, even in
imagination, separable from the being to which it belongs; and for that reason, cannot
of itself be the cause of any emotion. We have, it is true, no knowledge of any being
or substance but by means of its attributes; and therefore no being can be agreeable to
us otherwise than by their means. But still, when an emotion is raised, it is the being
itself, as we apprehend the matter, which raises the emotion; and it raises it by means
of one or other of its attributes. If it be urged, That we can in idea abstract a quality
from the thing to which it belongs; it might be answered, That an abstract idea, which
serves excellently the purposes of reasoning, is too faint and too much strained to
produce any sort of emotion. But it is sufficient for the present purpose to answer,
That the eye never abstracts. By this organ we perceive things as they really exist, and
never perceive a quality as separated from the subject. Hence it must be evident, that
emotions are raised, not by qualities abstractly considered, but by the substance or
body so and so qualified. Thus a spreading oak raises a pleasant emotion, by means of
its colour, figure, umbrage, &c. It is not the colour strictly speaking that produces the
emotion, but the tree as coloured: it is not the figure abstractly considered that
produces the emotion, but the tree considered as of a certain figure. And hence by the
way it appears, that the beauty of such an object is complex, resolvable into several
beauties more simple.
[17] When this analysis of human nature is considered, not one article of which
can with any shadow of truth be controverted, I cannot help being surprised at the
blindness of some philosophers, who, by dark and confused notions, are led to deny
all motives to action but what arise from self-love. Man, for ought appears, might
possibly have been so framed, as to be susceptible of no passions but what have self
for their object. But man thus framed, would be ill fitted for society. Much better is
the matter ordered, by enduing him with passions directed entirely to the good of
others, as well as with passions directed entirely to his own good.
[18] See Essays upon morality and natural religion, part 1. essay 2. ch. 4.
[19] Such proneness has the mind to this communication of properties, that we
often find properties ascribed to a related object, of which naturally it is not
susceptible. Sir Richard Greenville in a single ship being surprised by the Spanish
fleet, was advised to retire. He utterly refused to turn from the enemy; declaring, “he
would rather die, than dishonour himself, his country, and her Majesty’s ship.”
Hakluyt, vol. 2. part 2. p. 169. To aid the communication of properties in such
instances, there always must be a momentary personification. A ship must be
imagined a sensible being, to make it susceptible of honour or dishonour. In the battle
of Mantinea, Epaminondas being mortally wounded, was carried to his tent in a
manner dead. Recovering his senses, the first thing he inquired about was his shield;
which being brought, he kissed it as the companion of his valour and glory. It must be
remarked, that among the Greeks and Romans it was deemed infamous for a soldier
to return from battle without his shield.
[20] See chap. 1.
[21] See Essays on morality and natural religion, part 1. ess. 2. ch. 5.
[22] Lib. 7. cap. 36.
[23] Aulus Gellius, lib. 5. cap. 14.
[24] Brasidas being surprised by the bite of a mouse he had catched, let it slip out
of his fingers. “No creature (says he) is so contemptible, but what may provide for its
own safety, if it have courage to defend itself.”
Plutarch. Apothegmata.
[25] Spectator, Nº 439.
[26] Part 1. sect. 1. of the present chapter.
[27] At quæ Polycleto defuerunt, Phidiæ atque Alcameni dantur. Phidias tamen diis
quam hominibus efficiendis melior artifex traditur: in ebore vero longe citra æmulum,
vel si nihil nisi Minervam Athenis, aut Olympium in Elide Jovem fecisset, cujus
pulchritudo adjecisse aliquid etiam receptæ religioni videtur; adeo majestas operis
Deum æquavit.
Quintilian, lib. 12. cap. 10. § 1.
[28] See part 7. of this chapter.
[29] See the place above cited.
[30] Essays on the principles of morality and natural religion, part 1. ess. 2. chap.
1.
[31] See the introduction.
[32] See this point explained afterwards, chap. 9.
[33] See the appendix, containing definitions and explanation of terms, sect. 33.
[34] Chap. 6.
[35] See chap. 14.
[36] It is easier to conceive the manner of coexistence of similar emotions, than to
describe it. They cannot be said to mix or incorporate like concordant sounds. Their
union is rather of agreement or concord; and therefore I have chosen the words in the
text, not as sufficient to express clearly the manner of their coexistence, but only as
less liable to exception than any other I can find.
[37] Chap. 18. sect. 3.
[38] Chap. of epic and dramatic compositions.
 [39] See part 2. of the present chapter, toward the close.
[40] Canto 20. st. 97.
[41] Chap. 1.
[42] See part 1. sect. 1. of the present chapter.
[43] Herodotus, book 7.
[44] Act 2. sc. 6.
[45] Act 3. sc. 8.
[46] Part 1. of this chapter, sect. 3.
[47] Aristotle, poet. cap. 18. § 3. says, that anger raiseth in the spectator a similar
emotion of anger.
[48] See Historical law-tracts, tract 1.
[49] Part 5. of the present chapter.
[50] Chap. 2. part. 1. sect. 1. first note.
[51] Chap. 2. part 1. sect. 4.
[52] See the appendix, containing definitions and explanation of terms.
[53] See chap. 2. part 1. sect. 1.
[54] Longinus observes, that nature inclines us to admire, not a small rivulet,
however clear and transparent, but the Nile, the Ister, the Rhine, or still more the
ocean. The sight of a small fire produceth no emotion; but we are struck with the
boiling furnaces of Ætna, pouring out whole rivers of liquid flame. Treatise of the
Sublime, chap. 29.
[55] Kempfer’s history of Japan, b. 5. ch. 2.
[56] Longinus gives a pretty good description of the sublime, though not entirely
just in every one of the circumstances, “That the mind is elevated by it, and so
sensibly affected as to swell in transport and inward pride, as if what is only heard or
read, were its own invention.” But he adheres not to this description. In his 6th
chapter he justly observes, that many passions have nothing of the grand, such as
grief, fear, pity, which depress the mind instead of raising it. And yet in chapter 8th,
he mentions Sappho’s ode upon love as sublime. Beautiful it is undoubtedly, but it
cannot be sublime, because it really depresses the mind instead of raising it. His
translator Boileau is not more successful in his instances. In his 10th reflection he
cites a passage from Demosthenes and another from Herodotus as sublime, which are
not so.
[57] Kempfer’s history of Japan.
[58] Spectator, Nº 42
[59] It is justly observed by Addison, that perhaps a man would have been more
astonished with the majestic air that appeared in one of Lysippus’s statues of
Alexander, though no bigger than the life, than he might have been with Mount
Athos, had it been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the proposal of Phidias,
with a river in one hand and a city in the other. Spectator, Nº 415.
[60] Honestum per se esse expetendum indicant pueri, in quibus, ut in speculis,
natura cernitur. Quanta studia decertantium sunt! Quanta ipsa certamina! Ut illi
efferuntur lætitia, cum vicerunt! Ut pudet victos! Ut se accusari nolunt! Ut cupiunt
laudari! Quos illi labores non perferunt, ut æqualium principes sint! Cicero de finibus.
[61] Spectator, Nº 415.
[62] Chap. 8. of the Sublime.
[63] Lib. 3. beginning at line 567.
[64] High, in the old Scotch language, is pronounced hee.
[65] Herodotus, book 7.
[66] Chap. 30.
[67] Boileau and Huet.
[68] L’art poet. chant 1. l. 68.
[69] See chap. 4.
[70] See chap. 9.
[71] Chap. 1.
[72] Chap. 15.
[73] See chap. 1.
[74] See chap. 2. part 1. sect. 2.
[75] See chap. 4.
[76] Essays on the principles of morality and natural religion part 2. ess. 6.
[77] Hence the Latin names for surprise, torpor, animo stupor.
[78] See chap. 6.
[79] Coke upon Littleton, p. 71.
[80] Practical writers upon the fine arts will attempt any thing, being blind both to
the difficulty and danger. De Piles, accounting why contrast is agreeable, says, “That
it is a sort of war which puts the opposite parties in motion.” Thus, to account for an
effect of which there is no doubt, any cause, however foolish, is made welcome.
[81] Chap. 2. part 5.
[82] The examples above given are of subjects that can be brought to an end or
conclusion. But the same uneasiness is perceptible with respect to subjects that admit
not any conclusion; witness a series that has no end, commonly called an infinite
series. The mind running along such a series, begins soon to feel an uneasiness,
which becomes more and more sensible in continuing its progress.
 An unbounded prospect doth not long continue agreeable. We soon feel a slight
uneasiness, which increases with the time we bestow upon the object. In order to find
the cause of this uneasiness, we first take under consideration an avenue without a
terminating object. Can a prospect without any termination be compared to an infinite
series? There is one striking difference, that with respect to the eye no prospect can be
unbounded. The quickest eye commands but a certain length of space; and there it is
bounded, however obscurely. But the mind perceives things as they exist; and the line
is carried on in idea without end. In that respect an unbounded prospect is similar to
an infinite series. In fact, the uneasiness of an unbounded prospect differs very little
in its feeling from that of an infinite series; and therefore we may reasonably
conclude that both proceed from the same cause.
We next consider a prospect unbounded every way, as for example, a great plain,
or the ocean, viewed from an eminence. We feel here an uneasiness occasioned by the
want of an end or termination, precisely as in the other cases. A prospect unbounded
every way is indeed so far singular, as at first to be more pleasant than a prospect that
is unbounded in one direction only, and afterward to be more painful. But these
circumstances are easily explained without breaking in upon the general theory. The
pleasure we feel at first is a strong emotion of grandeur, arising from the immense
extension of the object. And to increase the pain we feel afterward for the want of a
termination, there concurs a pain of a different kind, occasioned by stretching the eye
to comprehend so great a prospect; a pain that gradually increases with the repeated
efforts we make to grasp the whole.
It is the same principle, if I mistake not, which operates imperceptibly with
respect to quantity and number. Another’s property indented into my field gives me
uneasiness; and I am eager to make the purchase, not for profit, but in order to square
my field. Xerxes and his army in their passage to Greece were sumptuously
entertained by Pythius the Lydian. Xerxes getting a particular account of his riches,
recompensed him with 7000 Darics, which he wanted to complete the sum of four
millions.
[83] Aristotle, poet. cap. 17.
[84] Spectator, Nº 265.
[85] Lib. 1. § 28.
[86] Act 4. sc. 2.
[87] See chap. 2. part 4.
[88] Chap. 2. part 4.
[89] Æn. lib. 5.
[90] Iliad, book 23. l. 879.
[91] Chap. 1.
[92] Locke, book 2. chap. 14.
[93] See chap. 1.
[94] See chap. 1.
[95] This chapter was composed in the year 1753.
[96] Chap. 1.
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