DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CIV2103: HYDRAULICS & HYDRAULIC

INSTRUCTOR: BYAMUKAMA DAN

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0789541607/0705418906
 INTRODUCTION TO PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water (H20) is the “universal solvent” and the most abundant

surface on Earth. It is also the only common substance to exist as
a solid, liquid, and gas naturally. Water molecules form hydrogen
bonds and are extremely polar.
The five main properties of water are its high polarity, high
specific heat, high heat of vaporization, low density as a solid,
and attraction to other polar molecules.
 Polarity and Structure

One oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms make a water molecule. It has a bent molecular
geometry with the oxygen having two lone pairs of electrons. The difference in electronegativity
between the oxygen and hydrogens causes the oxygen to have a partial negative charge and the
hydrogen to have a partial positive charge. This difference in charge causes polarity. The partial
positive charge of the hydrogen of one water molecule attracts the partial negative charge of the
oxygen of another water molecule. This attraction is called hydrogen bonding.

Hydrogen bonding is weaker than the covalent bonds between the oxygen and hydrogens of the
same molecule but causes many of water’s unique properties. For example, more energy is
required to break hydrogen bonds, so water has a higher melting and boiling point.
 Universal Solvent

Water is the solvent of life. Hydrophilic substances are those that dissolve in water, while
hydrophobic substances do not mix well with water. Substances can dissolve in water if
they can match or overcome the hydrogen bonding between water molecules. If they
cannot, the substance forms a precipitate. Acids, alcohols, and salts are rather soluble in
water while fats and oils are hydrophobic.

An ionic solute dissolved in water becomes separated. For example, NaCl separates into
Na+ cations and Cl- anions surrounded by water molecules. Water is amphoteric, meaning
it can act as either an acid or a base depending on the solution. It can produce both H+ and
OH- ions.
 Specific Heat Capacity

Water has a high specific heat of 4184J/(kg x K) at 20 ºC and high heat of

vaporization because of hydrogen bonding. This allows bodies of water to have

minimal fluctuations in temperature to regulate climate.

Water’s high heat of vaporization allows humans to use sweat to cool off. Sweat is

mostly made of water. It absorbs excess body heat as it evaporates. This process is

known as evaporative cooling.

 Density

Water’s density is 1 gram per cubic cm. This is used to define the gram. Instead of undergoing thermal
expansion, the density rises with temperature to a peak of 3.98 ºC and then decreases. Negative thermal
expansion is the increase in density between 32 and 39.16 F. As a result, ice is less dense than water,
which has a decrease in density by about 10%. This is why bodies of water may have a layer of ice on
the surface but contain liquid underneath. This allows fish and marine life to survive under the ice.
High specific heat keeps the temperature of the water relatively stable through the winter so that
marine life can survive.

Salt content lowers the freezing point of the ocean by almost 2 ºC. Ice still floats on the ocean, but the
ice is near salt-free with a similar density to ice on bodies of freshwater. The salt adds to the salinity
and density of the remaining water which sinks by convection. This process is called brine rejection.
 Compressibility

Compressibility is a result of pressure and temperature. The compressibility of water is so

low that is often assumed to be incompressible. Low compressibility allows water in deep
oceans with high pressure to only decrease by 1.8% in volume.

Electrical Conductivity

Pure water is a good insulator, but deionized water is never completely free of ions. Water
undergoes a process called autoionization as a liquid. This means that two water molecules
can form one hydroxide anion (OH-) and one hydronium cation (H30+).
 Cohesion and Adhesion

Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are constantly breaking and reforming with
other water molecules. Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to stick together.
Water’s polarity also gives water high adhesion: the ability to stick to other surfaces.
The adhesive forces are stronger than cohesive forces.

Strong cohesion and adhesion cause water to exhibit capillary action. Capillary action is
the process of liquid flowing through a narrow space without and often against gravity.
Water adheres to the walls of plants’ roots and rises up into the plant. Porous materials
such as water also exhibit capillary action. Trees can transport water through capillary
action over 100 meters.
 Surface Tension

The hydrogen bonding also causes water to have a high surface tension of 71.99mN/m

at 25. The surface tension is high enough for insects to walk on water. Surface tension

is a result of water’s cohesive properties. Water droplets and water rising above the rim

of a glass show water’s high surface tension.

 Capillary Action

Even if you've never heard of capillary action, it is still important in your life. Capillary
action is important for moving water (and all of the things that are dissolved in it) around. It
is defined as the movement of water within the spaces of a porous material due to the forces
of adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension.

Capillary action occurs because water is sticky, thanks to the forces of cohesion (water
molecules like to stay close together) and adhesion (water molecules are attracted and stick
to other substances). Adhesion of water to the walls of a vessel will cause an upward force
on the liquid at the edges and result in a meniscus which turns upward.

The surface tension acts to hold the surface intact. Capillary action occurs when the adhesion
to the walls is stronger than the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules.
Hydraulics, branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,

primarily liquids, in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides

its theoretical foundation. Hydraulics deals with such matters as the flow of liquids in

pipes, rivers, and channels and their confinement by dams and tanks.