General Physics I
Chapter 4 Motion in Two Dimensions
4.1 The Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors
4.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration
4.3 Projectile Motion
4.4 Uniform Circular Motion
4.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration
4.6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration
1. 本章將運動的維度擴大至2D或3D，我們將以2D平面運動為主軸，3D情形以此類推。
2. 由於維度獨立性的假設，所以各維度的運動情形可以獨立處理，然後再利用向量合成的方
法，完成整體運動的描述。
3. 我們將舉一些典型的2D運動，如拋體運動、圓周運動、相對運動等。
Chapter 5：Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of
Motion
5.1 The Concept of Force
5.2 Newton’s First Law and Inertial Frames
5.3 Mass
5.4 Newton’s Second Law
5.5 The Force of Gravity and Weight
5.6 Newton’s Third Law
5.7 Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 1
Chapter 4 Motion in Two Dimension
典型的拋體運動
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4-0 Introduction
Much of what we have developed for One-Dimensional Motion
can be immediately extended to vector notation for
Two-Dimensional Motion.
4-1 The Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Vectors.
討論2D的運動情形，先畫出質點在 xy 平面的運動
軌跡 (不是第一章1D的 x-t 圖）
At t = ti, particle is located at point A
position vector ri
At t = tf , particle is located at point B
position vector r f
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 3
Then the displacement vector ∆r during time interval
t t f ti is r r f ri .
The average velocity during ∆t
r
v
t
Both ∆r and ∆v are independent of the path between the 2-end
points.
Instantaneous velocity.
r dr
v lim
t 0 t dt
The direction of the velocity is along a line that is tangent to the
path of the particle（and in the direction
of the motion.）
v = instantaneous speed and is a scalar quantity.
v f vi
v
Similarly , a
t t
v dv
a lim
t 0 t dt
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 4
4-2 Motion in Two Dimensions with Constant
Acceleration
Constant acceleration means both magnitude and direction of
acceleration remain unchanged during the motion.
ˆ ˆ
Now, r x (t )i y (t ) j
where r is the position of a particle and both x and y are function
of time.
dx ˆ dy ˆ
v i j v x iˆ v y ˆj
dt dt
ˆ ˆ
Because a a x i a y j is a constant, therefore
個別維度的等加速運動情形，已在1D運動學描
述，對於2D運動情形，x y的運動狀態可以獨立
處理，然後再利用向量分量合成的方法，完成整
體運動的描述。
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 5
v f v xi a x t iˆ v yi a y t ˆj v xiˆ v y ˆj
v x v xi a x t
v y v yi a y t
or
v f vi at ( v xi iˆ v yi ˆj ) ( a xiˆ a y ˆj )t
also,
1 1
rf xi v xi t a x t 2 iˆ yi v yi t a y t 2 ˆj
2 2
x f iˆ y f ˆj
1 2
x f xi v xi t a x t
2
1 2
y f yi v yi t a y t
2
or
12
rf ri vi t at
2
2 – D motion having constant acceleration is equivalent to two
independent motions --- one in the x and one in the y direction ---
having constant acceleration ax and ay.
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 6
We note that:
1. r is generally not along the direction of vi or a .
2. v is generally not along the direction of vi or a .
3. By comparing the 2 graphs, v and r are not in the same
direction.
一質點自原點出發，在t=0時，其起始速度
x分量為 20 m/s，y分量為 -15 m/s，質點在移
Ex : Motion in a plane 動時，只有x方向的加速度 ax= 4m/s2。
a a x iˆ 4 m / s 2 iˆ
vi 20 m / s iˆ 15 m / s ˆj
ri 0
a. Find v t
b. Find v and speed at t 5 sec
c. Find r t
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 7
4-3 Projectile Motion(拋體運動)
In our analysis here, we have assumed
a. g is constant over the range of the vertical motion.
(the motion range << 6.410 6 m)
b. air resistance (空氣阻力) is neglected
(not true especially when v is large, spin effect (自旋) is also
neglected here)
拋物線路徑
The trajectory (軌跡) y(x) is hence a simple parabola path.
At t 0, projectile leaves the origin point
with vi vxiiˆ v yi ˆj
Given i and vi , find the trajectory of the
projectile motion.
vx vxi vi cos i constant
v y vi sin i gt
x vi cos i t
1 2
y vi sin it gt
2
g
y tan i x 2 x 2
0 i
2vi cos2 i 2
Completely specified by i and vi
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 8
y = ax-bx2 is the equation of a parabola that passes through the
origin.
Maximum height of projectile :
at h, v yA 0 or v yA vi sin i gt A 0
vi sin i
tA
g
1 2 vi2 sin 2 i
h v yi t A gt A
2 2g
Horizontal range of projectile：
R v x 2 the time requied to reach max height）
vi cos i 2t A
2vi2 sin i cos i vi2 sin 2 i
g g
Maximum range occurs when i 45
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 9
Another solution:
y ax bx 2
g
where a tan i and b
2vi2 cos 2 i
At max height ( x xm ), slope 0
dy
0 a 2bxm
dx
a
xm
2b
sin i
tan i cos i
2g g
2vi2 cos 2 i vi2 cos 2 i
vi2 cos i sin i vi2 sin 2 i
g 2g
vi2 cos i sin i vi4 cos 2 i sin 2 i
h a b
g g2
sin i vi2 cos i 1 vi2 sin 2 i vi2 sin 2 i
cos i g 2 g 2g
vi2 sin 2 i
R 2 xm
g
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Example:
x'
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NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 12
4-4 Uniform Circular Motion 即等速率圓周運動
簡易的分析加速度大小：
For a uniform circular motion, 雖速率相同，但仍有加速度，改變速度的方向。
我們可以證明此加速度永遠向著圓心，稱為向心
vi v f v cons tan t 或徑向加速度。
Although the speed does not vary, the particle is accelerating.
Because velocity is a vector, even if a velocity changes only in
direction, there still an acceleration.
This acceleration vector must be perpendicular to the path following
by the particle, which is toward the center of the circle and is called
the centripetal acceleration (or radial acceleration 向心或徑向加速
度) ac. 嚴謹的分析等速率圓周運動的加速度大小和方向：
Now, ac = ? (magnitude and
13
direction)
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024
For uniform cicular motion,
v constant, r constant,
at time t , particle is located at p ( x p , y p ),
yp xp
and sin cos
r r
v vxiˆ v y ˆj
v sin iˆ v cos ˆj
yp xp
v iˆ v ˆj
r r
dv v dy p ˆ v dx p ˆ
a i j
dt r dt r dt
v v
v y iˆ vx ˆj
r r
v ˆ v
v cos i v sin ˆj
r r
v2 ˆ v2 ˆ
cos i sin j
r r
ax ay
: At point p, the radius r makes with the x axis or v makes with a
vertical line.
: The acceleration a makes with a horizontal line.
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 14
2
v
a a x2 a 2y
r
v2
a y r sin
tan 2
tan
ax v
cos
r
. Which means that a is directed along
the radius, toward the circle' s center.
v2 ˆ v2 ˆ v2
a a r cos i sin j rˆ
r r r
rˆ：unit vector of radial direction
Period T = time required for one complete revolution.
In the time T, the particle moves a distance 2πr.
∴ it’s speed v = 2πr/T
or T = 2πr/v
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 15
4-5 Tangential and radial acceleration
一般非均勻或非等速率圓周或圓弧運動，除了有向心加速度外，尚有使速度在切向方向改變的
切向加速度。
For non-uniform circular motion, or motion along an arbitrary
curved path, the acceleration vector can be
resolved into two parts：
radial component： a r and
tangential component (切向加速度)： a t
We have known that
v2
a r rˆt
r
Note：The radial direction change direction at any time.
r：radius of curvature（曲率半徑）of the path at the point
in question.
v：the instantaneous speed at that point.
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2020 16
Now, at = ? (magnitude and direction)
at causes the change in the speed of the particle. It is parallel to
the instantaneous velocity and its magnitude is
dv
aT
dt
Let r̂ ≣ a unit vector lying along the radius vector and directed
radially outward form the center of the circle
ˆ ≣ a unit vector tangent to the circle (or in the direction of
increasing )
Note：both r̂ and ˆ move along with the particle and vary in
time
Then 2
d v v
a at a r ˆ rˆ
dt r
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2020 17
Remark: Conversion between plane polar coordinate system
and rectangular coordinate system
Let rˆ unit vector directed radially outward
ˆ unit vector in the direction of increa sin g
Then,
r x iˆ y ˆj rrˆ
( r cos ) iˆ ( r sin ) ˆj
r (cos iˆ sin ˆj )
rˆ cos iˆ sin ˆj
Since rˆ ˆ 0
Let ˆ a iˆ b ˆj ˆ 1
a 2 b2 1 and a cos b sin 0
We can get a sin and b cos
ˆ sin iˆ cos ˆj
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 18
4-6 Relative Velocity and Relative Acceleration
A relative quantity(相對物理量) is one whose value depends on
the reference frame in which it is measured
前面已提，在不同座標系統量測物理量，可能會得到
ex. r position 不同的值，所以座標系統的選擇必須敘述清楚。
v velocity 但有些物理量卻不隨座標系統而變，我們可將物理量
分為兩類：即相對物理量與不變量。
p momentum
m v2 / 2 kinetic energy
An invariant (不變量) is a quantity that is independent of
reference frame.
ex. m mass
c speed of light
Q charge
v << c
In this section, we discuss only the relative motion, and learn:
1. To understand some physical quantities are
relative for different reference (ref.) frames.
2. Their relationship between two inertia ref. frames (慣性參考
座標系). 在兩個慣性座標系統中，運動物理量之間的關係。簡單的例子，即一個是
固定在靜止地面的座標系統，另一個是以等速v移動的座標系統。
3. Galilean transformation (伽利略座標轉換)
4. Navigation problem (導航問題)
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 19
(A) Position
Consider a particle is located at P at time t, the motion of the
particle is described by two observers, one in S and another in S’.
S：fixed frame relative to earth
S’：a frame moving with a constant v0 relative to S
rpo = the position vector of a particle at P measured from O point
of S frame（or observed at O）
rpo’ = the position vector of a particle at P measured from O’ point
of S’ frame（or observed at O’）
ro’o = frame O’ w. r. to O or the position vector of O’ measured
from O
In general, p o’
rpo’
rij = the position of i relative to j or
i is observed（measured）from j
o’
i 相對於 j 的位置 或
自 j 觀察或量測 i 的位置
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 20
rpo ro 'o rpo ' rpo ' ro 'o (t )
rpo ' vo 'o t rpo ' v0t
Galilean Coordinate Transformation
Ex: S ： ground
S’： air for plane or water for boat
(B) Velocity
drpo
drpo '
v0
dt dt
v po v po ' vo 'o
Navigation：
A. For airplane (P) particle P
S ground (G)
S’ air (A) Then,
vPG vPA v AG
B. For boat (B) in water
S ground (G)
S’ water (W) Then,
v BG v BW vWG
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 21
(C) Acceleration
dv po dv po '
dvo 'o dvo 'o
0
dt dt dt dt
a po a po ' invariant
The acceleration of the particle measured by an observed in the
earth frame of reference is the same as that measured by any
other observed moving with constant velocity relative to the
earth’s frame.
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 22
Galilean transformation equations：
S：ref. frame fixed relative to earth.
S’：ref. frame moving with uniform motion relative to S.
then r r ' v0 t
or x x ' v0 t x ' x v0t
y y' y' y
z z' z' z
t t' t' t
Galilean Corrdinate transformation
v v ' v0 Galilean velocity transformation
a a' Galilean acceleration transformation
Note : v0 c
NCTU General Physics (I) Prof. K. H. Wu Sep/2024 23
Ex 1: Landing of an aircraft
v PG v PA v AG
Note：The design of a plane (or a boat) only allow control over the
motion with respect to (w.r.t) air (or water).
For example, the compass shows the direction of vPA of a plane.
(vPA = navigation velocity 飛機航速 = velocity of plane w.r.t air)
BUT, the pilot has to follow a particular path over the earth
surface.
∴ In navigation problems, one has to imagine more than one ref.
frame and to relate position, velocity and acceleration between
different frames.
Ex.2 Navigation
The compass of an airplane indicates that it is heading east. Ground
information indicates a wind blowing due north. Show on a
diagram the velocity of the plane with respect to the ground.
v AG
tan v AG v PA
2
v AG
2
v PA
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If the plane wants to head east w. r. t. the earth:
v AG
sin v PG v PA
2
v AG
2
v PA
Ex. 3 A boat crossing a river
vbr 10 km / hr
vrE 5 km / hr
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