Chapter 3

Current Electricity
Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur
naturally in many situations. Lightning is one such phenomenon in which
charges flow from the clouds to the earth through the atmosphere. The flow
of charges in lightning is not steady, but in our everyday life we see many
devices where charges flow in a steady manner. Atorch and a cell-driven
clock are examples of such devices.
Electric Current
When current steady,
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor is
called electriccurrent flowing through it.

coulomb
Unit of electric current = =C/s=ampere (A)
second

When current is not steady,

The current at timetacross the cross-section of the conductor is defined as
the ratio of AQ to At in the limit of At tending to zero,
AQ dQ
I= At-0
lim At dt

Electric Currents in Conductors

When no electric field is present:
The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion. During motion
electrons collide with the fixed ions. The direction of its velocity after the
collision is completely random. The average velocity of electrons will be
zero. So,there will be no net electriccurrent.

When an electric field is present:

E
The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus
move to neutralise the charges and constitute an electric current. Hence
there willbe a current for a very short while and no current thereafter.
To maintain a steady electric field in the body of the conductor we use cells
or batteries.
Ohm's Law
Abasic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828.
At constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
V«I
V= RI
R=

The constant of proportionality Ris called the resistance of the conductor

The SI units of resistance is ohm and is denoted by the symbol .
Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
1
C= R

C=!
Unit of conductance is ohm-(9-'or mho) or =siemens
Ohm's Law:Experimental verification
DUDACELL

Voltage -Current Graph (V-1 Graph)

AB
Slope = BC

Slope : =R
B
Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance.
Its reciprocal gives conductance.
Which material has more resistance?

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance. Slope of Ais greater than that of B.
So material A has more resistance than B.

Factors on which the Resistance ofa Conductor Depends:

1)The material of the conductor
2)The dimensions of the conductor
a)Length of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to
length l of the conductor.
R«l
b) The area of cross section of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross
sectional area, A.
R«

Resistivity of a Conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to length l of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A.
R«
A

R= P

where the constant of proportionality p is called resistivity.

Resistivity depends on the material of the conductor but not on its
dimensions.
RA
p =
Qm²
Unit of resistivity = = Qm
m
Ohm's Law in Vector Form

V=IR
pl Current density
Current per unit area (taken normal to the current), is
R=# called current density and is denoted by /.
V= Current density j
Unit of current density =A/ m²
V=jpl Current density is a vector quantity.

IfE is the magnitude of uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l, then the
potential differenceV across its ends, V= El.
El=jpl

This is the vector form of Ohm's law. Here electric field and current density are vector quantities

Conductivity
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity
1
p
This is another equation for Ohm's law in vector form.
Unit of conductivityis Nm1

Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity

Drift Velocity
The average velocity attained by electrons in a conductor due to an electric
field is called Drift velocity.
The force acting on the electron due to the electric field,
F= qE = -eE
The acceleration of the electron,
F -eE
m m

If t is the time between two successive collissions, v = at

-eEt
Then the velocity gained by an electron, v= m

Drift velocity, Va= e (t)average m

eE
Va = m

The average time interval between two successive collisions is called

relaxation time(t)
Keiation connecting DriftAx=Velocity
, At
and Current
E

Distance Travelled by an electron in time At = V¡ At

Volume of conductor = A va At
Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume of conductor
The number of electrons in the conductor= n A va At
Total charge of electrons in the conductor, q= neA va At
Current I=9
At
I-neA va At
At

I=ne AVa
Current density
|=ne AVà
m

I=neA eE
m
ne²ArE
m

j=
neTE
m

Conductivity
Comparing with, j = oE
net
G=
m

Mobility
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers.
In metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons.
In an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions.
In an electrolyte, these can be both positive and negative ions.
Mobility u defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
field.
eE
Vd m

E E

m
Limitations of Ohm's Law
Ohmic Conductors
Conductors which obey Ohm's law are called Ohmic
conductors.The Voltage - Current graph of such
conductors will be linear.
Eg:- metals ,Nichrome

Non - Ohmic Conductors

The materials and devices used in electric circuits which do not obey Ohm's
law are called Non - Ohmic conductors. So V-l grapis not linear.
Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes, Transistors.

The deviations broadly are one or more of the following types:

a) The value ofV stops to be proportional to I.
b) The value of current changes when we reverse the direction of V.
c) The relation between Vand I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V
for the same current I.

Negative
Non-linear resistance
reglonreglon

0.2 y

Voltage V(V)’

Resistivity of Various Materials

The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators
depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10-8 Qm to 10- Nm.

Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivities 1018
times greater than metals or more.
In between the two are the semiconductors.
Temperature Dependence Of Resistivity
The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature.
The resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by,
Pr =Pol1+ a(T - To)]
Where po is the resistivity at a reference temperature T,.
Pr is the resistivity at a temperature T
a is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity
T = [1 + a(T- To)]
Po
PT -1= a(T- To)
Po
pr-Po
Po
a(T- To)
C=
PT-Po
Po(T-To)
The dimension of a is [Temperature]- and unit is K-1,
When temp increases, if the resistivity increases, then a is positive
When temp increases, if the resistivity decreases, then ca is negative
For metals
P
For metals. a is positive ie, when temp increases, the resistivity also
increases. 1
p= ne't p
When temperature increases, the collisions of free electrons increases,
relaxation time decreases and hence the resistivity increases.
T
For insulators and semiconductors,
For insulators and semiconductors, a is negative ie,
when temp increases, the resistivity decreases.
1
Gne't
n
When temp increases, the number n offree electrons per unit
T
volume increases , and hence the resistivity decreases.

For Nichrome ,Manganin and constantan

Nichrome (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium), Manganin and
constantan exhibit avery weak dependence of resistivity with temperature.
These materials are thus widely used in wire bound standard resistors since
their resistance values would change very little with temperatures.
Resistors
Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of
two major types: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors.
. Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz.,
manganin, constantan, nichrome or similar ones.
Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon
resistors are compact, inexpensive and thus find extensive use in
electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their
values are given using a colour code.

Colour Code of Resistors

Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 10° or 1
Brown 10
Red 2
3 103
Orange
Yellow 10*
Green 5 105
Blue 6
Violet 7 107
108
Gray
White 9 109
Gold 10-! 5
Silver 102 10
No colour 20

The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant
figures of the resistance in ohms.
. The third band indicates the decimal multiplier.
. The last band stands for tolerance.Sometimes, this last band is absent
and that indicates a tolerance of 20%.
10x 10t 5%

22x 102t 5%
Combination of resistors
Resistors in Series R

V, V,

In series connection same current pass through all resistors. The potential drop is different
for each resistor. VË=IR,
V=V+ V, +V3 V, = IR2
V= IR, + IR, +IRg 1) V,= IRg
If all the resistors are replaced with a single effective resistance R, with same potential Vand current I
V= IR (2)
From eq (1) and (2)
IR = IR, + IR2 +IR3
R=R + R2 +R3
For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is, R=R, + R2 +...+ R,
If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is,
R'= nR

Resistors in Parallel

In parallel connection the potential drop across all resistors are same,but the currents through
each resistor are different.
l=l,+h tl3 IË= V/R1
I;=V/Rz
I= -(1) I3= V/R3
RË Rz R3
If three resistors are replaced by a single resistor of effective resistance Rwith same potential Vand
current I

(2)

V V,V
From equations (1) and (2) R R R3
1 1

R 124+:
R R2 R3
 1
" For 2 of resistors,the equivalent resistance is, =
R R1+R2
R R{R2
R1+Rz
For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is
1
+" .. +
Rn
If nresistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent
resistance is,

Electrical Energy, Power

Electrical Energy
Work done by the cell on a charge q under a pd ofV volt
W=qV
q=lt
W=VIt
This is work is same as the electricl energy supplied by the
cell to the charges
E=VIt
The electrons move with increased KE and make collisions with atoms.
The energy gained by the charges is shared with the atoms.
The atoms vibrate more vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up.
The amount of energy dissipated as heat in the conductor during the time interval t is
E=VIt

Using Ohm's law V= IR,

E= VIt
E= IR xlt E=Vlt=Vxt
R
E=1'Rt
R

Power
Power is the energy dissipated per unit time
P=
Unit of power is wat(W)
E= VIt E= V²t E= 12Rt
R

P 'Rt
P=VIt/t P= t

P=VI
P= 1'R
P= R
 The power loss or "ohmic loss" ina conductor of resistance Rcarrying a currentIis
given by these equations. It is this power which heats up, the coil of an electric bulb to
incandescence, radiating out heat and light.The external source,that is the cell
supplies this power:The chemical energy of the cell supplies this power for as long as it
can.

Cells, Emf, Internal Resistance

Cell
D

Electrolyte Symbol

Asimple device which maintain a steady current in an electric circuit is the

electrolytic cell.
Basically a cell has twoelectrodes, called the positive (P) and the
negative (N) .They are immersed in an electrolytic solution. The electrodes
exchange charges with the electrolyte.
Internal resistance of a cell (r)
Resistance offered by the electrolytes to the flow of current through it is
called internal resistance of the cell

E.M.F -Electro Motive Force (e)

open circuit Vottage

The emf e is the potential difference between the positive

and negative electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e.,
when no current is flowing through the cell.
Note that [ is, actually, a potential difference and not a
force.
Voltage () Closed Circult Voltage

The Voltage (V) is the potential difference between the

Rinad
positive and negative electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit,
i.e., when current is flowing through the cell.
Relation connecting emf and Voltage
battery

emf
CurrentI: Total Resistance

I= R+r
[=I(R +r)
[= IR + Ir
[=V+ Ir
V=[-Ir

Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series
Eeg

VAC =Eeq -II Teq

Eeq E1 + Ez
Teq = Ii +2
For n cells in series,
Eeg =E1 +E,t...tEn
Ieg = I1 + I2t.......+.n
Cells in parallel

B, C
 VAC = Eeg -I reg
1 11
T'eq
Eeq 1+
Teq
For n cells in parallel
114+......
Teq
En
Eeq
Teq

Kirchhoffs Rules
(a)Kirchhoff's First Rule - Junction Rule:
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction.)I=0.

I +I, +I, =l3 + ls

I,+l, I, +l, I, =0
Xl=0

Kirchhoffs junction rule is in accordance with law of conservation of charge.

(b)Kirchhoffs Second Rule -Loop Rule
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop is
zero. X AV = 0
R
B C

For Cell
If Path from -ve to +ve terminal, AV=+E
For Loop ABCDA If Pathfrom +ve to -ve terminal AV=-8
For resistor
E -IR E,- IR=0 If path is in same direction of current AV=-IR
If path is in opposite direction of current AV= +IR

Kirchhoffs Loop rule is in accordance with Law of conservation of energy.

 Example
30 0

400 10
b
45 V
200

80 V

Applying Junction rule at junction 'a'

13=Ij+ lz
Applying Loop rule for the loops 'ahdcba',
-30 I+ 45-1 13 -40 1, =0
Applying Loop rule for the loop 'ahdefga',
-30 I,+ 20 1, +1 1,- 80 = 0.

Wheatstone Bridge

R,

For abalanced Wheatstone's bridge, the resistors are such that the current
through th galvanometer I =0.
Apply Kirchhoff's junction rule to junctions B
I,=l, ----(1)
Apply Kirchhoff's junction rule to junctions D
I|=l; --(2)
Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule to closed loop ABDA
- IzRz+ l RË=0
I, R= l,Rz----(3)
 Apply Kirchhoff's loop rule to closed loop CBDC
I,R4 -13 Rz=0
1, R3= I,R4 -(4)
eq (3) IR1 lzR2
eq (4) 1z R3 L,R4
R1 R2
R3 RA
R2 R4
R1 R3
This is the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null
deflection.

Meter Bridge
Meter Bridge is an electrical device to measure an unknown resistance.
It works on the principle of balanced Wheatstone Bridge.
R
B

P D
C
cm (100- ) cm
r(100-)
K
By Wheatstone's principle, when the bridge is balanced,
R2 R4
R R
R S
rl r(100 -I)
Sl
R=
(100 - )
The resistivity of the wire
RA
p=
p=
Rnr²
L
R= resistance of the wire
r= radius of the wire
L= length of the wire
Example
In a metre bridge the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from A. If
now a resistance of 122 is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs
at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and S.

From the first balance point, we get

33.7 R
66.3 S ----(1)
After S is connected in parallel witha resistance of 12N, the resistance
across the gap changes from Sto Seg
12 S

51.9
Seq 12+S
R
48.1 12 S
Se 12+S
51.9 (12+S)R
48.1 12 S

Substituting from eq(1)

51.9 (12+S) 33.7
48.1 12 66.3

S=13.5N.
Using eq(1)
R= 6.86 N.

Potentiometer
Apotentiometer is a long piece of uniform wire of few meters in length
across which a standard cell is connected.
Principle of Potentiometer
The potential difference between two points of a current carrying conductor
of uniform thickness is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between the points

A
potential drop per unit length (Potential gradient) == V
Then the potential difference between A and C, [ = pl
.#%4._.i
Potentiometer is used,
1. to compare the emf of two cells
2. to measure the internal resistance of a cell

1.Comparison of emf's oftwo cells

The primary key is closed.

Let l, be the balancing length for for cell E.
Let l, be the balancing length for for cell E.

2.Measurement of internal resistance of a cell

J
R

The primary key K, is closed and K, is open,

--(1)
 Now K, is closed,
V«l,
V=IR
r+R
eR
V= r+R
r+R 2 - - ( 2 )

eq r+R

r+R
R

+1=4
E=2.1
R 2

r= R(}-l2)

Why potentiometer is preferreà over voltmeter for accurate measurement

of emf of a cell?
As potentiometer uses null deflection method, it does not draw current from
the cellat the balance point. Therefore, potentiometer measures the actual
emf of the cell. The voltmeter always draws current from the cell and
measures the terminal voltage of the cell and not the emf. So potentiometer
is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement.