In the shown cascade of two reactors, A qi , x i

undergoes a first order reaction having a

rate constant k = 2 min-1. (xi), (x1), and (y)
are the feed, interstage, and exit product h1 A1
concentrations in mol/ft3. 𝑞1
h2
x1
Calculate the linear hydraulic resistances
(R1) and (R2) assuming i. laminar flow h3 R1 A2
y
and ii. turbulent flow.
R2
𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘: qi = 10 ft3/min
ℎ1 − ℎ2 10 − 5 A1 = 6 ft2
𝑞1 = 10 = ∴ 𝑅1 = 0.5 𝑚𝑖 𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅1 𝑅1 A2 = 3 ft2
ℎ2 + ℎ3 5+5 h1 = 10 ft, h2 = 5 ft, h3 = 5 ft
𝑞𝑜 = 10 = ∴ 𝑅2 = 1 𝑚𝑖 𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘:
𝑞1 = 𝑐1 ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒: 10 = 𝑐1 10 − 5 ∴ 𝑐1 = 4.472
1 𝑑𝑞1 4.472
= = = 1 ∴ 𝑅𝟏 = 1 𝑚𝑖 𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅1 𝑑ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 2 5

𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦, 𝑅2 = 2 𝑚𝑖 𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2
For the shown system, derive the differential
equations relating the changes in the levels h1
and h2 to changes in the inflow qi in terms of the
linearized hydraulic resistances R1, R2, and R3
and the tanks’ cross-sectional areas A1 and A2.

For Tank 1:
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑑 ℎ1
𝑞𝑖 = + 𝐴1
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 ℎ1 𝑑 ℎ1
𝐴1 𝑅1 +ℎ1 =ℎ2 + 𝑅1 𝑞𝑖 𝑇1 +ℎ1 =ℎ2 + 𝑅1 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

For Tank 2:
ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ2 ℎ2 𝑑 ℎ2
= + +𝐴2
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 ℎ2 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑑 ℎ2 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝐴2 𝑅2 + ℎ2 + ℎ2 +ℎ2 = ℎ1 𝐴2 𝑅2 + 1+ + ℎ2 = ℎ1
𝑑𝑡 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅1
 hi
In the shown tank system the cross sectional area
V2
of each tank is 0.5 m2. Initially all the valves are
closed with h1 = 1.5 m and h2 = 0.5 m. The
constant head in the supply line hi is 4 m. The
hydraulic resistances of valves V1 and V2 are h1
constant at R1 = 2 min/m2 and R2 = 4 min/m2 V1 h2
respectively. At time t = 0, V1 and V2 are opened
simultaneously. Derive the differential
equations modeling the dynamics of h1 and h2.

For Tank 1: For Tank 2:

ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑑ℎ1 ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ𝑖 𝑑ℎ2
0= + 0.5 + = 0 + 0.5
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ1 𝑑ℎ2
+ ℎ1 = ℎ2 0.5 + 0.5 ℎ2 = 0.5 ℎ1 + 0.25ℎ𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ2
+ ℎ2 = ℎ1 +0.5ℎ𝑖
𝑑𝑡
2.1.3. A Pneumatic Process
A gas at pressure P1 flows through a
restriction to the closed vessel shown in the
figure. It is required to express the time P2
variation of P2 in response to time
P1
variations of P1.
If the relative excursions in the two pressures are small,
the equation relating the pressure drop across the capillary
to the weight rate of flow of the gas can be linearized over
a convenient range as has been done with the hydraulic
process. The conservation equation becomes:
dw 1
Where rp is the linearized  (P1  P2 )  0
pneumatic resistance, dt rp
(lbforce/in2)/(lbmass/min)
Accumulation Input Output = 0
 dw 1 a constitutive equation is
 (P1  P2 )  0 (5)
dt rp required to express (w) as a
function of (P2)
Assuming ideal gas behaviour:
w w : Gas weight in chamber
P2 V  R (6)
M V : Vessel volume
Assuming isothermal filling, M : Gas molecular weight
Eq. (6) differentiates to: R : Universal gas constant
dP2 R dw
 (7)  : Chamber temperature
dt MV dt
Combination of Eqs. (5) and (7) gives:
dP2 R 1
 (P1  P2 ) (8) OR P2
dt MV rp
P1
MV dP2
rp  P2  P1 (9)
R dt
MV dP2
rp  P2  P1 (9)
R dt
rp= Pneumatic resistance, lb force . min
2
in lb mass
M.V lb .in 2
= C = Pneumatic capacitance, mass
R. lb force
T= rp.C = Time constant, min dw
dP2

dP2
T  P2  P1 (9)
dt
Example 1
Natural gas consisting essentially of pure methane flows at the rate of 1 kg/s under an
upstream pressure P1 = 3 atm through valve (A) having a linear pneumatic resistance
r1 = 0.2 atm.s/kg into the intermediate vessel of volume V = 10 m3. It leaves the vessel
through valve (B) to a reactor operating at a constant pressure of P2 = 2 atm. Assume
that the system is isothermal at a temperature of 300 K.
1. Calculate the values of the steady state pressure Pv and P1 r1 V r2 P2
the linear pneumatic resistance r2 of valve B. q1
Pv
q2
A w B
2. Derive two dynamic equations relating the changes in
each of Pv and q2 to changes in P1.

1. At steady state:
𝑷𝟏 −𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 −𝑷𝟐
𝒒𝟏 = = 𝒒𝟐 =
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

3 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 − 2
1= =1=
0.2 𝒓2
Therefore: 𝑷𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟖 atm and 𝒓2 = 0.8 atm.s/kg
2. The dynamic relations between Pv and P1
𝑷1 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷 𝒗 − 𝑷2
𝒒1 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒2 =
𝒓1 𝒓2
𝒅𝒘 𝑷1 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 − 𝑷2 𝒅𝒘
𝒒1 = 𝒒2 + = +
𝒅𝒕 𝒓1 𝒓2 𝒅𝒕
𝒘 𝑴𝑽 𝒅𝑷𝒗 𝒅𝒘
Since 𝑷𝒗 𝑽 = 𝑹𝑻, hence =
𝑴 𝑹𝑻 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
P1 r1 V r2 P2
𝑷1 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 − 𝑷2 𝑀𝑉 𝑑𝑷𝒗 Pv
= + q1 A w B q2
𝒓1 𝒓2 𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑡
𝑷1 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 − 2 16 × 10 𝑑𝑷𝒗
= +
0.2 0.8 0.082 × 300 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑷𝒗
6.504 + 6.25𝑷𝒗 = 5𝑷1 + 2.5
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑷𝒗
1.041 + 𝑷𝒗 = 0.8𝑷1 + 0.4 (1)
𝑑𝑡
2. The dynamic relations between q2 and P1
𝑑𝑃𝑣
1.041 + 𝑃𝑣 = 0.8𝑃1 + 0.4 (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑷1 − 𝑷𝒗 𝑷𝒗 − 𝑷2
𝒒1 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒2 =
𝒓1 𝒓2 P1 r1 V
Pv
r2 P2
q1 A w B q2
𝒒2 = 1.25𝑷𝒗 − 2.5
𝑑𝑷𝒗 𝑑𝒒𝟐
thus 𝑷𝒗 = 0.8 𝒒𝟐 + 2 and 𝑑𝑡
= 0.8 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞2
1.041 + 𝑞2 = 𝑃1 − 2 (2)
𝑑𝑡
Example 2
The cross sectional area of the shown vessel is 1
m2 and it is 3 m high. At steady state: Supply line
pressure, pi = 30 m water head, Atmospheric
pressure, po = 10 m water head, Liquid level,
h = 1 m, Entrapped gas pressure, p = 20 m water
head, Water rate, qiss = qoss= 1 m3/h.

a. Calculate the values of the hydraulic resistances R1 and R2 assuming them to be

linear.
𝑝𝑖 − (𝑝 + ℎ 30 − (20 + 1 𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂. ℎ
𝑞𝑖 = 1= 𝑅1 = 9
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑚3

𝑝 + ℎ − 𝑝𝑜 (20 + 1 − 10 𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂. ℎ
𝑞𝑜 = 1= 𝑅2 = 11
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑚3
b. Assuming isothermal gas phase behavior, derive a
linearized relation between the gas pressure
deviations (𝑝) and small level perturbations (ℎ).
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

𝑉 = 𝐴(3 − ℎ 𝑉 = (3 − ℎ

At steady state: n RT=20(3-1) = 40

Therefore: 𝑃(3 − ℎ = 40
40
𝑃=
3−ℎ
𝑑𝑃 40
𝑃= ℎ 𝑃= 𝟐
ℎ
𝑑ℎ 3−ℎ
𝑠𝑠
40
𝑃= 𝟐
ℎ 𝑃 = 10 ℎ
3−1
c. If the pressure in the supply line (𝑝i) fluctuates
around its steady-state operating value, derive
three dynamic relations between small
perturbations in the supply line pressure (𝑝i) and
each of (ℎ), (𝑝), (𝑞o).
𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂. ℎ
𝑃 = 10 ℎ 𝑅1 = 9
𝑚3
𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂. ℎ
𝑅2 = 11
𝑚3
𝑝𝑖 − (𝑝 + ℎ 𝑝 + ℎ − 𝑝𝑜
𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑜 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑝𝑖 − (𝑝 + ℎ 𝑝 + ℎ − 𝑝𝑜 𝑑ℎ 𝑝𝑖 − (𝑝 + ℎ 𝑝+ℎ 𝑑ℎ
− =𝐴 − =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 9 11 𝑑𝑡
9 𝑑ℎ 1 9 𝑑𝑝 1
+ℎ = 𝑝 + 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖
20 𝑑𝑡 20 𝑖 20 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑝 + ℎ − 𝑝𝑜 𝑝+ℎ 11 ℎ 9 𝑑 𝑞𝑜 1
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑜 = =ℎ + 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑝𝑖
11 11 11 20 𝑑𝑡 20
2.1.4. A Mercury Thermometer
Consider the mercury thermometer shown in 2
the figure where (2) is the temperature of its
contents or its temperature indication and (1)
is the temperature of the surrounding medium. 1
Heat Conservation Equation: Constitutive Equation:
dQ d2 dQ
 0  w.c p (10)  U.A.(1  2 )
dt dt dt (11)
Input Output Accumulation
d2 U.A 1 d2
 (1  2 )  k (1  2 ) Or w.c p .  2  1
dt w.c p (12) U.A dt
(13)
Thermal Capacitance
Thermal Resistance 1 w.c p
Time Constant = T = 
k U.A
2.1.5. An Electric Circuit
The figure depicts an (R-C) circuit C
Vi Vo
where (Vi) is the input voltage and (Vo)
is the voltage across the capacitor.
Charge Conservation: Constitutive Equations:
dq Vi  Vo
i0  (14) i (15)
dt R
Input Output Charge Accumulation q
Current
Vo  (16)
C
Combination of Eqs. (14), (15), and (16) gives:
dVo dVo
R.C  Vo  Vi T  Vo  Vi (17)
dt dt
T = R.C is the time constant = product of the resistance and
the capacitance, and thus has the units of time
2.1.6. Analogy
The hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal and
V1 V2 V3
electrical systems discussed above are
analogous from the point of view of their
dynamic behaviour. This may be
generalized since many physically different
processes are characterized by similar
differential equations. P2 P3

This means that easily constructed P1

electric circuits may be used in the
study of the dynamic behaviour of not so easily
constructed pneumatic, mechanical, chemical or thermal
systems when the differential equations of such systems
cannot be so easily solved. This is the basis of analogue
simulation and computation.
 Another first order system, very popular in chemical plants, is the
well-stirred vessel. Whatever the function of such a vessel in the
process, its dynamic behaviour can always be approximately
represented by a first-order differential equation as will be seen in
the next sections. q, x y
2.1.7. A Mixing Vessel
(x) and (y) are respectively the input and
output concentrations of the solute expressed
V y
as gmoles of solute per liter, and (q) is the
volumetric flow rate expressed as liters/minute
and assumed constant.
Unsteady state material balance on solute component:
dy V dy dy
V  q.x  q.y Or  y  x Or T  y  x
dt (18) q dt dt (19)
(T) = (V/q) = time constant, expressing in this case the
average residence time in the vessel.
In setting up Eq. (18) perfect mixing has been q, x y
assumed because the average concentration in the
tank has been assumed to be the same as that of
the output stream.
2.1.8. A Stirred Tank Reactor V y
Another example of a first-order process is the
continuous stirred-tank reactor. If a solute component
undergoes a chemical reaction in a perfectly mixed vessel, an
additional term must be incorporated into the dynamic material
balance of Eq. (18) in order to allow for the disappearance of this
component through reaction. If it is assumed, that the temperature
and density of the reaction mixture remain constant during the
reaction so that the volumetric rate of flow out of the vessel equals
the inflow rate q, the unsteady state material balance on the reactor
becomes: Where V is the vessel volume, and r the
dy chemical reaction rate expressed as
V  q.x  q.y  rV moles of reactant consumed by the
dt (20) reaction per unit volume of the reaction
mixture per unit time.
 dy
V  q.x  q.y  rV (20) r  k.y n (21)
dt
The reaction rate is usually a function of temperature and
concentrations of reactant and also those of the products in
the case of reversible reactions. If the reaction is irreversible
and there is only one reactant, the rate expression is generally
given by Eq. (21).
(k) is the reaction velocity constant, (n) order of the chemical
reaction. The differential equation relating the time
variation of (y), the output concentration, in response to
variations in the inlet concentration (x) may be obtained by
combining Eqs. (20) and (21):
dy
V  q.x  q.y  k.y n .V (22)
dt
This equation comprises again a nonlinear term which is
to be linearized as was done with the hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.
If we assume the reactor to be only slightly
perturbed from its initial operating steady-state r
conditions x(0), y(0) and r(0), the reaction rate
r  k.y n
^
curve may be approximated to its tangent in the
neighborhood of point y(0), r(0). Transferring the r
origin to this later point, Eq. (21) reduces to: ^
^ dr ^ ^
y
r . y (23) Using the x^  x  x (0)
dy y  y ( 0) deviation y  y  y(0) y
variables ^
^ r  r  r (0)
dy ^ ^ dr ^
V  q. x  q. y  .V. y (24)
dt dy y ( 0 )
^
V dy ^ q ^
y . x (25)
Time dr dt dr
Constant,
q .V q .V Steady State
dy y ( 0 ) dy y ( 0) Gain, K
T
 ^
V dy ^ q ^
y . x (25)
Time dr dt dr
Constant,
q .V q .V Steady State
dy y ( 0 ) dy y ( 0) Gain, K
T
^
dy ^ ^
T  y  K. x
dt
Note that the time constant is inferior to that
corresponding to an ideal mixing stage in which no
chemical reaction takes place.

The time constant decreases, as the reaction rate

curve is steeper. Also the steady-state gain is < 1.
2.1.9. A Jacketed Vessel q, i q,o
i : Inlet temperature.
w : Cooling jacket temperature x
o : Effluent stream temperature w V 
o
q : Volumetric flow rate x
 : Density cp : Specific heat w
V : Liquid holdup volume
A : Heat transfer area x : Coolant flow rate (high)
U : Heat transfer coefficient
d o
q. .c p .( i   o )  U . A.( o   w )  V . .c p . (26)
dt
V..c p do q..c p UA
.  o  i  w
q..c p  UA dt q..c p  UA q..c p  UA

Time Constant Steady state Gain

 Sheet 1, Problem 4

Estimate the time constant in seconds for a cylindrical mixing tank

8 ft in diameter when the height of the fluid is 6 ft. Fluid enters at
the rate of 40 ft3/min.
𝑑𝑦 𝜋
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑉 𝑉 = × 82 × 6 = 301.6 ft3
𝑑𝑡 4
𝑉 𝑑𝑦
+𝑦 =𝑥 𝑞 = 40 ft3/min
𝑞 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 301.6
𝑇= = = 7.54 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 452.4 𝑠
𝑞 40
 Example
A chemical reactor having a volume of 1 liter is conducting
a first order reaction having a rate constant of 1 min-1. The feed to
the reactor is at 1 lit/min and at a concentration of 1 mole/lit. The
feed concentration increases suddenly to 2 mole/lit.
a. Derive the dynamic relation between feed and product
concentrations. What are the values of the time constant and
steady state gain?
b. The final steady state effluent concentration.
𝑑𝑦
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑟𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑟 =1×𝑦 q, x y
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑉 + 𝑞𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑉 = 𝑞𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
0.5 + 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥
𝑑𝑡 V y
Time constant = 0.5 min and the steady state gain = 0.5
𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥
Initially: 𝑦 = 0.5 × 1 = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒/𝑙𝑖𝑡
Final steady state: 𝑦 = 0.5 × 2 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒/𝑙𝑖𝑡
 Sheet 1, Problem 13

50 ft3/h of a solution of an acid anhydride is being hydrolyzed in a stirred tank

reactor of volume 100 ft3. The concentration of the reactant in the output stream
is 0.25 mole/ft3. The rate of reaction is given below as a function of composition
of the reactant in the reactor mixture.
y, mole/ft3 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
r, mole/h.ft3 0.45 0.64 0.78 0.89 1 1.1
Derive the dynamic relation relating the reactant concentration in the effluent
stream to changes in its concentration in feed. Find also the time constant.
𝑑𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑞𝑥 − 𝑞𝑦 − 𝑟𝑉 0.2
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑛
y = 0.4954x + 0.6884 0.1
0
𝑑𝑦 -4 -3 -2 -1 -0.1 0
𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑦 − 𝑟𝑉 ln 𝑟 = ln 𝑘 + 𝑛 ln 𝑦 -0.2
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 = 0.5
-0.3
-0.4
𝑑𝑟 -0.5
𝑟= 𝑦 ln 𝑘 = 0.6884 -0.6
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑠 -0.7

−0.5
𝑘 = 2 -0.8
𝑟 = 2(0.5 (0.25 𝑦 0.5
-0.9
𝑟 = 2𝑦
𝑟 = 2𝑦
 𝑑𝑦
𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑥 − 𝑞 𝑦 − 𝑟𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝑟 = 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
100 = 50𝑥 − 50𝑦 − 200𝑦
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
100 + 250𝑦 = 50𝑥
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
0.4 + 𝑦 = 0.2𝑥
𝑑𝑡

At steady state 𝑦 = 0.2𝑥