Chapter 3 & 4

Research Design and sources of error in

Research design
Learning Objectives

1. Define research design, classify various research designs,

and explain the differences between exploratory and
conclusive designs.
2. Compare and contrast the basic research designs:
exploratory, descriptive, and causal.
3. Describe the major sources of errors in a research design
 INTRODUCTION
After a problem has been defined and the research objectives have
been established, the next step in the marketing research process is
determining the research design. In this chapter, you will be
introduced to three basic types of research design: exploratory,
descriptive, and causal. Each serves a different purpose and relies on
different methods. Each has its own
set of advantages and disadvantages.
Knowing the basic options for research design can assist a researcher in
making appropriate decisions in advance of conducting a research
project.

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 INTRODUCTION
Research design is the roadmap that guides your journey through survey
development, data collection, analysis, and report preparation. As with any
journey, you must know where you are going (problem definition) and have
a good map to get you there (an appropriate research design).
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information
needed to structure or solve marketing research problems.
A research design lays the foundation for conducting the project. A good research
design will ensure that the marketing research project is conducted effectively and
efficiently. The primary data are qualitative in nature and are analyzed accordingly.
Given these characteristics of the research process, the findings of exploratory
research should be regarded as tentative or as input to further research.
Why is knowledge of Research design important?

❑ Knowledge of research design is important in developing an

appropriate study to approach a problem or opportunity. A good
research design is a mandatory requirement of good research.

❑ What allows researchers to do this is the fact that basic research

designs available to them can be successfully matched to a range of
problems and research objectives.

11/24/2023 5
 Research Design: Classification
Research designs may be broadly classified as exploratory or conclusive

Figure 3.1

A Classification of Marketing Research

 Three Types of Research Design
Research designs are classified into three traditional categories: exploratory,
descriptive, and causal. The choice of the most appropriate design depends largely on
the objectives of the research. Three common objectives are:

(1) to gain background information and to develop hypotheses

(2)to measure the state of a variable of interest. (for

example, level of brand loyalty)

(3) to test hypotheses that specify the relationships between two or

more
variables. (for example, level of advertising and brand loyalty).
How to Choose your Research Design?
✔ The choice of research design also depends on how much we already know
about the problem and research objective.

✔ The less we know, the more likely it is that we should use exploratory research.
Causal research, on the other hand, should only be used when we know a fair
amount about the problem and are looking for causal relationships among
variables Associated with the problem or research objectives.

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Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is unstructured, informal research that is
undertaken to gain background information about the general
nature of the research problem.

• Exploratory research is used to gain background information, to

define terms, to clarify problems and hypotheses, and to
establish research priorities.

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 Exploratory Research
The primary objective of exploratory research is to provide insights
into, and an understanding of, the problem confronting the
researcher.
Exploratory research is used in cases when you must define the
problem more precisely, identify relevant courses of action, or gain
additional insights before an approach can be developed.
The information needed is only loosely defined at this stage, and
the research process that is adopted is flexible and unstructured.
For example, it may consist of personal interviews with industry
experts. The sample, selected to generate maximum insights, is
small and nonrepresentative.
 Conclusive research
The objective of conclusive research is to test specific
hypotheses and examine specific relationships. This
requires that the researcher clearly specify the information
needed.

Conclusive research is typically more formal and

structured than exploratory research. It is based on large,
representative samples, and the data obtained are
subjected to quantitative analysis. The findings from this
research are considered conclusive in nature in that they
are used as input into managerial decision making.
 Descriptive Research
▪Descriptive research is undertaken to describe answers to
questions of who, what, where, when, and how. When
researchers wish to know who their customers are, what
brands they buy and in what quantities, where they buy the
brands, when they shop, and how they find out about
products, they turn to descriptive research.

▪Descriptive research is also used to project a study’s findings

to a larger population. If a descriptive study’s sample is
representative, the findings may be used to predict a variable
of interest such as sales.
 Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons:

1.To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople,

organizations, or market areas.
2.To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain
behavior.
3.To determine the perceptions of product characteristics. For example, how do
households perceive the various department stores in terms of salient factors of the
choice criteria?
4.To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For example,
to what extent is shopping at department stores related to eating out?
5. To make specific predictions.
 Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is preplanned and structured. It is typically based on large
representative samples. A formal research design specifies the methods for
selecting the sources of information and for collecting data from those sources. A
descriptive design requires a clear specification of the who, what, when, where,
why, and way (the six Ws) of the research

In summary, descriptive research, in contrast to

exploratory research, is marked by a clear statement of the
problem, specific hypotheses, and detailed information
needs. The survey conducted in the department store
patronage project, which involved personal interviews, is
an example of descriptive research.
 Descriptive Research
Cross-Sectional Designs The cross-sectional study is the most frequently used
descriptive design in marketing research. Cross-sectional designs involve the
collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once

cross-sectional design A type of

research design involving the
collection of information from
any given sample of population
elements only once.

longitudinal design A type of research design involving a

fixed sample of population elements that is measured
repeatedly. The sample remains the same over time, thus
providing a series of pictures that, when viewed together,
portrays a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes
that are taking place over time.
 Longitudinal design
a longitudinal study provides a series of pictures that give an in-depth view of the
situation and the changes that take place over time. For example, the question,
“What were the most important political issues to Americans in 2018?” would be
addressed using a cross-sectional design. However, a longitudinal design would be
used to address the question, “How did Americans change their views of the most
important political issues between 2017 and 2018?”

Sometimes, the term panel or true panel is used

interchangeably with the term longitudinal design.
A panel consists of a sample of respondents, generally
households that have agreed to provide information at
specified intervals over an extended period.
 Causal Research
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships (see
Table 3.2).
Marketing managers continually make decisions based on assumed causal relationships.
These assumptions may not be justifiable, and the validity of the causal relationships should
be examined via formal research.
For example, the common assumption that a decrease in price will lead to increased sales
and market share does not hold in certain competitive environments.

Causal research is appropriate for the following purposes:

1.To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and
which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
2. To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables
and the effect to be predicted.
 Sources of Data
❑ Primary: designed to generate or collect data for a specific problem.
The data collected do not exist prior to data collection. This data
could be qualitative or Quantitative.

❑ Secondary: data collected for a purpose other than the research at

hand. Can be qualitative or quantitative. However, this data should
be revised before deciding to use it.

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Sources of data to address the research problem

survey
observation Primary
data interview Published
sources data

observations External Standardized

Data sources of
sources
sources marketing
Secondary data
Data
Sources
Internal
records internet
A comparison of primary and secondary data
Primary data Secondary data

✔ Collection purpose:
✔ Collection purpose:
✔ for the problem at
✔ For other problems
hand
✔ Collection cost: low
✔ Collection cost: high
✔ Relatively short compared to
✔ Collection time: long primary data

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 Types of secondary data
Internal External

• Example: customer • Published materials:

complains such as directories,
census, statistical data,
• Sales record. publishes surveys,
documents, articles
• Computerized databases
The Type of Data
Types of
Data

Quantitative

Qualitative

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 Topic Quantitative research Qualitative research
Nature of responses Measurement, testing and validation Emotional responses, Exploration
,understanding and idea generation

Sample size Large Small

Not very flexible Flexible ,interviews and observation, less
Data collection Interviews and observations, surveys standardized, less structured, more-open-
ended and non-directive questions
Standardized, structured more
closed questions

Numbers, percentages, means, Words, pictures, diagram,

Data Less details Detailed and in-depth
high reliability, low validity
Context rich
Statistical inferences possible High validity, low reliability
Context poor Impossibility of statistical
inferences

11/25/2023
Increasing the percentage of obesity was reflected on an increased
number of citizens suffering high blood pressure and diabetes. This, in
consequence, affected the budget for the NHS (National health System)
in Egypt negatively. Decision makers have thought of launching a
marketing campaign to create awareness of the negative effects of
obesity and change the lifestyle of people to a healthier one. However, to
implement this campaign effectively, a survey is required to capture
people motives behind consuming unhealthy food. Also, the survey is
needed to measure the extent that these motives differ among different
level of incomes, gender and gender role in the family.

Required:
1. What type of research each case requires? (hint; exploratory, descriptive or causal).
Justify your answer.
2. Develop three possible research questions that fit to this case (Marketing research
Problem).
3. Explain how primary research and secondary research could in each case product. Support
your answers with examples and apply on the case.
Sources of Errors in Research
Design
 Relationships Among Exploratory, Descriptive, and Causal Research

We have described exploratory, descriptive, and causal research as major classifications of

research designs, but the distinctions among these classifications are not absolute. A given
marketing research project may involve more than one type of research design and thus serve
several purposes. Which combination of research designs should be employed depends on the
nature of the problem. We offer the following general guidelines for choosing research designs:

1.When little is known about the problem situation, it is desirable to begin with exploratory
research. Exploratory research is appropriate when the problem needs to be defined more
precisely, alternative courses of action identified, research questions or hypotheses developed,
and key variables isolated and classified as dependent or independent.

2.Exploratory research is the initial step in the overall research design framework. In most
instances, it should be followed by descriptive or causal research. For example, hypotheses
developed via exploratory research should be statistically tested using descriptive or causal
research.
 Relationships Among Exploratory, Descriptive, and Causal Research

3.It is not necessary to begin every research design with exploratory research. It depends on the
accuracy with which the problem has been defined and the researcher’s degree of certainty
about the approach to the problem. A research design could well begin with descriptive or
causal research. To illustrate, a consumer satisfaction survey that is conducted quarterly need
not begin with or include an exploratory phase each quarter.

4.Although exploratory research is generally the initial step, it need not be. Exploratory research
may follow descriptive or causal research. For example, descriptive or causal research results
in findings that are hard for managers to interpret. Exploratory research may provide more
insights to help understand these findings. The relationships among exploratory, descriptive,
and causal research are further illustrated by the department store patronage project.
NONRESPONSE ERROR
Nonresponse error arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond.
Nonresponse will cause the net or resulting sample to be different in size or composition from the
original sample.

RESPONSE ERROR
Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are mis recorded
or mis analyzed.
Surrogate information
error
may be defined as the variation between the information needed for the marketing research problem
and the information sought by the researcher. For example, instead of obtaining information on
consumer choice of a new brand (needed for the marketing research problem), the researcher obtains
information on consumer preferences since the choice process cannot be easily observed.

Measurement error
may be defined as the variation between the information sought and the information generated by the
measurement process employed by the researcher. While seeking to measure consumer preferences,
the researcher employs a scale that measures perceptions rather than preferences.

Population definition error

may be defined as the variation between the actual population relevant to the problem at hand and
the population as defined by the researcher. The problem of appropriately defining the population may
be far from trivial, as illustrated by the case of affluent households.
Sampling frame error
may be defined as the variation between the population defined by the researcher and the population as
implied by the sampling frame (list) used. For example, the telephone directory used to generate a list of
telephone numbers does not accurately represent the population of potential consumers because of unlisted,
disconnected, and new numbers in service.

Data analysis error

encompasses errors that occur while raw data from questionnaires are transformed into research findings. For
example, an inappropriate statistical procedure is used, resulting in incorrect interpretation and findings.
Response errors made by the interviewer include respondent selection, questioning, recording, and cheating
errors.

Respondent selection error

occurs when interviewers select respondents other than those specified by the sampling design or in a manner
inconsistent with the sampling design. For example, in a readership survey, a nonreader is selected for the
interview but is classified as a reader of the Wall Street Journal in the 15- to 19-years category in order to meet a
difficult quota requirement.
Questioning error
denotes errors made in asking questions of the respondents or in not probing when more
information is needed. For example, while asking questions an interviewer does not use the exact
wording given in the questionnaire.

Recording error
arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting, and recording the answers given by the respondents.
For example, a respondent indicates a neutral response (undecided), but the interviewer
misinterprets that to mean a positive response (would buy the new brand).

Cheating error
arises when the interviewer fabricates answers to a part or all of the interview. For example, an
interviewer does not ask the sensitive questions related to a respondent’s debt but later fills in the
answers based on personal assessment. Response errors made by the respondent are comprised of
inability and unwillingness errors.
Inability error
results from the respondent’s inability to provide accurate answers. Respondents may provide
inaccurate answers because of unfamiliarity, fatigue, boredom, faulty recall, question format,
question content, and other factors. For example, a respondent cannot recall the brand of
yogurt purchased four weeks ago.

Unwillingness error
arises from the respondent’s unwillingness to provide accurate information. Respondents may
intentionally misreport their answers because of a desire to provide socially acceptable answers,
avoid embarrassment, or please the interviewer. For example, a respondent intentionally
misreports reading Time magazine in order to impress the interviewer