Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics

Volume 4 Issue 2

Protective Helmet Types with Materials and Methods of

Construction
Dr. Nemailal Tarafder*
EX-Emeritus Professor,
Department of Textile Engineering, Hooghly Engineering and Technology
College, West Bengal, India
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Any motorcycle helmet is a type of helmet that is worn by the motorcycle riders and is at high
risk in traffic crashes. Wearing helmet protects against cervical spine injury of the
motorcycle rider. Motorcycle helmets are basically of five types. There are two main
protective components in the conventional motorcycle helmets. Many countries have made
compulsion for the motorcycle riders to wear helmet as per the laws of the respective
countries. Throughout the world, most of the countries have their own standards to assess the
effectiveness of quality of the helmets from the view point of safety. In conventional helmet,
there are three basic components, namely the shell, a foam layer and the padding material. It
is observed that modern helmets have not changed significantly since the introduction of
Styrofoam impact absorption in 1960 for the construction of helmets. In any helmet, the liner
is the most important part, the foam layer where the energy of the crash is managed. In the
design construction, the most important consideration is the survival impact.

Keywords: Ballistic thread, bead, cervical spine, fatigue, foam, safety right, shell

INTRODUCTION bicycling was thrown over the handlebars

Safety of the motorcycle rider is the and died in the hospital. He was not
primary object of the protection of head wearing any helmet. Lawrence death led to
against any injury from impact or collision the conclusion that the unnecessary loss of
and ultimately to save the life of the life by motorcycle despatched riders
motorcyclist [1]. The report says that through head injuries. Cairns’ research led
wearing helmets reduces the chances of to the increased use of crash helmets by
head injury by 69% and death by 42% [2]. both military and civilian motorcyclists
The origin of the helmet date backs to the [4].
Brook Lands Racetrack in early 1914,
when a medical officer Dr. Eric Gardner There are five basic types of helmets
observed that a motorcyclist found in intended for motorcycling and others not
injured condition about every two weeks intended for motorcycling but which are
[3]. He along with Mr. Moss of Bethnal caused by some riders. All types of
Green made a canvas and shellac helmet helmets are secured by a chin strap, and
stiff enough to stand heavy blow and their protective benefits are greatly
smooth enough to glance off any reached, if not eliminated if the chin strap
projections it encountered. Dr. Gardner is not securely fastened so as to maintain a
received a letter from the Isle of Man snug fit. The Snell Memorial Foundation
Medical Officer stating that after the TT recently certified a flip-up helmet for the
races, they normally had several first time. ECE, 22.05 allows certification
interesting concussion cases but that in of modular helmet with or chain bar tests
1914 there were none. In 1935, when T. E. [5]. A novelty helmet can protect the scalp
Lawrence lost control in a narrow road against sunburn while riding and if it stay

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

on during crash might protect the scalp the shell. In contrast, a wide variety of
against abrasion, but it has no capability to helmets will employ very similar foam
protect the skull or brain from an impact layers. In EPS foam, the stuff is stiff and
[6]. To understand the action of a helmet, light weight but also perfectly crushable
the first necessary thing is to understand during impact [11]. Modern helmets with
the mechanism of head injury. Skull new constructions and methods are
fracture is not life-threatening unless the improving safety, in some cases absorbing
fracture is depressed and impinges on the 30% more energy than their Styrofoam
brain beneath and bone fractures usually equivalent. Motorcycle or bicycle helmets
heal over a relatively short period. Brain or other helmets use in the sports absorb
injuries are much more serious. Therefore, impact energy using expanded
the primary purpose of a helmet is to Polystyrene, the same material used to
prevent traumatic brain injury while skull deliver varying densities to accommodate
and face injuries are significant secondary different deceleration rates for different
concern [7]. weight heads [12]. The main benefit is that
it is cheaper and there is no measurable
Motorcycle helmets greatly reduce injuries difference in safety provided by more
and fatalities in motorcycle accidents thus expensive helmets versus crappy helmets.
many countries have laws requiring Bicycle helmet liners are mostly moulded
acceptable helmets to be worn by the in expanded Polystyrene (EPS) foam.
motorcyclists [8]. These laws vary Granules of EPS known as bead are placed
considerably, often exempting mopeds and in a mould and expanded with steam and
other small-displacement bikes. In USA pressure into the familiar picnic colour
and India, there is some opposition to foam. Still with EPS world, the top end
compulsory helmet use. Many other helmets require internal reinforcement,
countries have their own sets of standards usually to open up larger vents and the
that are used to judge the effectiveness of a techniques for including the reinforcement
motorcycle helmet in an accident. Some of in the mould and getting them to line up
the specified standards are like, ACU Gold correctly are critical to the manufacturing
or Silver badge, BSI 6658, CMVSS, processes [13]. Manufacturers use a
CRASH, CSA CAN 3-D 230-M 85, variety of materials such as nylon,
DOTFMVSS 218 USA [9] and many polypropylene or even metal or metal
more. The standards also describe how mesh for reinforcement. EPS can be made
helmets must be labelled, including such in layers with different densities to tune
information as how to wear and clean the impact management, permitting softer
helmet, its size and mass and warnings to layers to crush in lesser impacts and harder
replace the helmet after a violent impact layers to handle the reality the bad hits.
[10].
The most important design consideration
Any motorcycle helmet consists of a foam for helmets is to survive impacts. These
layer, shell and padding. The shell impacts can vary from falling objects to
disperses the impact across wide area, head-on collision. The helmets lessen the
while also preventing anything from impacts by absorbing energy, but it turns
piercing the helmet. Mean while, the foam out that the best way of doing this and the
absorbs as much as impact as possible, so materials depends on the type of impact.
as the head does not have to. The soft Helmets have existed since early times to
padding ensures a good fit against the protect people in battle. Before the
head. The basic difference between introduction of steel and aluminium they
ordinary advanced helmets normally lies in were made of iron and beaten into shape

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

[14]. The present day use of helmets are obstructed his view of two boys on
not restricted to only for police and army bicycles shivering to avoid them,
but there has been a wide application of Lawrence lost control and was thrown over
helmets in the common purposes like the handlebars. He had no helmet and
persons in the construction works, cycling, suffered serious head injuries which left
horse riding, snowboarding, boxing, etc. him in a coma, he died after six months in
The past 20th century technical and the hospital. One of the doctors attending
material design for bicycle at times him was Hugh Cairns, a neurosurgeon,
increased greater than automobile design. who after Lawrence’s death began a long
Now in the 21st century even the said low- study of what he saw the unnecessary loss
class bicycles are pushing boundaries of of life by motorcycle despatch riders
light weight, efficient, functional and high- through head injuries. Cairn’s research led
performance needs of the cyclists [15]. to the increased use of crash helmets by
both military and civilians [1].
Today technology has advanced the
ballistic threat to human has increased There are five basic types of motorcycle
significantly. As well as every civilians helmets and other types are not intended
who are exposed to these threats as part of for motorcycling, although those are used
their every day work requires adequate by some riders. All of these helmets are
equipment. This increasing demand for secured by a chin strap and their protective
body armour and ballistic helmets are benefits are greatly reduced if not
driving the equipment industry to create eliminated, when chin strap is not securely
light weight, reliable protection adequate fastened so as to maintain a snug fit. A full
for specific application and to a wide range face helmet covers the entire head with a
of customer [16]. The head is a very rear that covers the base of the skull and a
delicate part of the body and one which we protective section over the front of the
rely on every day. Injuries of head can be chin. Such helmets have an open cut out in
very serious which is why head protection a bane across the eyes and nose and often
is so important. According to the U.K include a clear or tinted transparent plastic
Health and Safety Executive’s statistics face shield, known as a visor that generally
2015−16, 15 people were killed in the swivels up and down to allow access to the
U.K. when being hit by a moving, falling face. The motor cross or off-road helmet
or flying object. Six out of these were in has already elongated the chin and visor
the construction industry. Head injuries portions, a chin bar and partially open face
also accounted for one in ten reported non- to give rider extra protection while
fatal injuries which can still have life wearing goggles and to allow the
changing effects. Even after a minor head unhindered flow of air during the physical
injury, brain function can be temporarily exertion typical of this riding. A hybrid
impaired, something often referred to as between full face and open face helmets
concussion. This can lead to difficulties for street use is the modular or flip-up
such as dizziness, fatigue, depression, helmet, also sometimes termed convertible
irritability and memory problems [17]. or flip-face. When fully assembled and
closed, that resemble full face helmet by
MOTORCYCLE HELMETS bearing a chin bar for absorbing face
In May 1935, T. E. Lawrence, known as impacts. Its chin bar may be pivoted
Lawrence of Arabia had a crash on upwards by a special lever to allow access
Borough Superior SS 100 on a narrow to most of the face, as in an open face
road near his cottage at Wareham. The helmet. Open face or three quarters
accident occurred because a dip in the road helmets cover the ears, cheeks and back of

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

the head, but lack the lower chin bar of the mechanism of head injury. The common
full face helmet. Many offer snap-or visors perception that helmet’s purpose is to save
that may be used by the rider to reduce the rider’s head from splitting often
sunlight glare. An open face helmet misleading. Skull fractures are usually not
provides the same rear protection as a full life threatening unless the fracture is
helmet, but little protection to the face, depressed and impinges on the brain
even from non-crash events. The half beneath and bone fracture usually heal
helmet also referred to as a shorty in the over a relatively short period. Brain
USA and Pudding basin or TT helmet in injuries are much more serious. They
UK and popular with rockers and road frequently result in death, permanently
racers of the 1960s in the British Isles. It disability or personality change and unlike
has essentially the same front design as an bone, neurological tissues have very
open face helmet but without a lowered limited ability to recover after an injury.
rear in the shape of a bowl. There are other Therefore, the primary purpose of a helmet
types of head wears often called beanies is to prevent traumatic brain injury while
brain buckets or novelty helmets. A skull and face injuries are a significant
novelty helmet can protect scalp against secondary concern [7]. It is important that
sunburn while riding and if it stays on the liner in a motorcycle helmet is soft and
during a crash, might protect the scalp thick so that the head decelerates at a
again abrasion, but it has no capability to gentle rate as it sinks into it. The helmet
protect the scalp or brain from impact [6]. becomes quickly impractical if the liner is
more than 2.5−5.1 cm thick. An ideal liner
Black helmets are popular among is stiff enough to decelerate the impacting
motorcyclists but a study reports that they head to an abrupt stop in a smooth uniform
offer the least visibility to motorists. manner just before it completely crushes
Riders wearing a plain helmet (white) the liner and no stiffer.
rather than a black helmet were associated
with 24% lower risk of suffering from an Many countries have their own laws and
accident injury or death. It is also reported standards for the motorcycle riders to wear
that riders wearing high-visibility clothing helmet in order to avoid accidents [8].
and white helmets are likely to be more
These laws vary considerably often
safety conscious that other riders. Modern
exempting mopeds and other small
helmets are constructed from plastics and
premium price helmets are made with fibre displacement bikes. Countries like USA
glass reinforced with Kevlar or Carbon and India, they have introduced
fibre. They usually have fabric and foam compulsory helmet wearing for the riders
interiors for both comfort and protection. of moped and small slow speed two-
Helmets are constructed from EPS foam wheelers. Similarly, throughout the world,
and an outer shell to protect EPS. The many countries have made it compulsion
density and thickness of EPS is designed for the quality standards of the helmets to
to offer better protection. Fibre glass or avoid accidents. Among them are: ACU
fibre shells will crash on impact offering gold or silver badge, AS/NZS 1698, BSI
better protection. Kevlar or Carbon fibres 6658, CMVSS, CRAHS DOT FMVSS 218
help to reduce the amount of fibre glass (USA) [9], ECE regulations 22, ICC, IS
but in the process it reduces the helmet 4151, SHARP (UK), etc. Most motorcycle
weight and offer more protection from standards use impacts at speeds between 4-
penetration but still crushing on impact. 7 m/s (9-16 mph). Since the surface of the
road is almost parallel to the direction a
To understand the action of a helmet it is motorcyclist moves while driving on a
first necessary to understand the small component of their velocity is

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

directed perpendicularly. The severity of Since the adoption of Styrofoam impact

an accident impact is also influenced by absorption in 1960, there has not been any
the nature of the track. There is a wide significant change in the construction of
range of severity in the impacts that could modern helmets. With the introduction of
happen in a motorcycle accident, some new materials along with the methods of
will be more severe than the impacts used construction, lots of improvements are
in the standards texts and some will be less taking place in the safety area of the
[10]. helmets and in some cases, helmets are
absorbing 30% more energy than the
MATERIALS FOR HELMETS Styrofoam at the time of impacts [12]. It is
A motorcycle helmet consists of a shell, actually pretty good at absorbing impacts,
foam layer and padding. The difference given its extremely basic nature and is
between basic and advanced helmets easily accommodating different
normally lie in the shell in contrast, a wide deceleration rates for different weight
variety of helmets will employ very similar heads. Its main benefit is that it is cheaper
foam layers. Most use some variation of and that is why there is little to no
EPS—Expanded Polystyrene foam layer. measurable difference in safety provided
This stuff is stiff and light weight but also by the more expensive helmets versus
perfectly crushable during impact. Some of crappy varieties. The purpose of
the advanced helmets will use multiple introducing Enter Koroyd, a new material
densities of EPS in various layers and for the construction of helmets and the
locations. This creates a smarter helmet purpose of which is to crush on impact
which can absorb the crash differently thereby absorbing energy in a measurable
depending on the severity and location of and effective way. The appearance of the
impact. Thermoplastic is usually some material is like a honeycomb and each of
form of Polycarbonate which is not the its tubes is made of a co-polymer created
hardest material. These helmets require through the extrusion process. The
more foam padding to meet the safety function of the thick inner layer is to
standards. Thermoplastic helmets are provide energy and strength, while the
larger and heavier than more advanced outer layer looks like a thin membrane of
lids. Fibreglass shells are more expensive just a few microns thick. Its ability to
than plastic mainly as they are is a pain in absorb varying levels of energy can be
the butt to make. They have a shell that is tailored by the thickness of the tube walls.
harder and lighter in weight than plastic. Smith is the first helmet brand to adopt the
Fibreglass is quite brittle and prone to material and Sours explained that it brings
cracking. They do not require as much benefits beyond just safety. Koroyd is
foam padding, making them smaller and lighter than Styrofoam. Cyclists
lighter than plastic lids. Advanced universally love Koroyd’s next benefit the
fibreglass shells are made from advanced ventilation. Hollow tube all over the areas
fibres that have already been mixed with means ventilation all over. Areas on a
resin or some other substances. Kevlar helmet that were once solid Styrofoam is
composite shells can be about 20% lighter now have all vents. The Sun’s rays are
than fibreglass shells. Kevlar and Carbon blocked by the contour of the helmet’s
composite shells always combine Kevlar curves meaning riders bare scalp would
with some other materials to make up not burnt on long rides. The combination
shortcomings. It is very expensive. It of two layers in the Multi-directional
achieves the safety standards of fibreglass Impact Systems having a slippery layer to
and plastic helmets with much less size act as helmet’s impact absorption and
and weight [11]. comfort offering effect, as well as to

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separate heat from the rotational force quality of fabric, surface finish, weave and
created during an accident. other subtle characteristics. Straps are put
on to the helmet after it comes out of the
BICYCLE HELMETS mould. The buckle is the last major piece
The most important part of a helmet is its of the helmets and it is attached when
liner and it is the foam layer where the straps are put into the helmet. Bike helmets
energy of the crash is managed. Helmet made with ring fit arrangement are fitted
liners in the bicycles are mostly moulded with an adjustable ring of some kind
in EPS foam. For the cheaper helmets that inside. The next step is the assembly of the
make up the largest part of sales in the U. parts in the complete helmet. It is usually
S market, the techniques are standards done by hand labour. Once the assembly is
used in the industry’s foam shops or complete, it is finished off with the
making all sorts of EPS parts. Granules of application of graphics in the form of
EPS known as bead are placed in a mould stickers. Many other accessories can be
and expanded with steam and pressure into added during the manufacturing or
the familiar cooler foam. Among the EPS assembly process.
helmets, the top end varieties require
internal reinforcements, usually to open up In the design construction, the most
larger vents and the techniques for important consideration is to give more
including the reinforcements in the mould stress on to the ability to survive impacts.
and getting them to line up correctly are These impacts are related to falling body
critical to the manufacturing process. The to head-on collisions. The helmets lessen
first bicycle helmet to use this technique the impacts by absorbing energy and to
was the Pro Tec Mirage, a late 1980’s obtain it the best material must be selected
model and had used a nylon mesh [13]. [14]. In order to prevent injury from small
The reinforcement is normally buried in falling objects, workers in the factories or
the foam and the user may not even be in the building construction, a hard hat is
aware that it is there but it is essential to recommended. Here also the key
keep the models with larger vents from requirement is that the helmet must not
splitting on impact. break under the impact. The properties of
the material should of such type that it
The shell for less expensive helmets are must have good toughness so that they do
made usually glued into the liner, then not fracture/crack and enough strength to
taped around the edge for appearance, take the maximum load without any
although some use glue and others have no deformation. The selection criteria for the
tape. In case of expensive helmets, the materials in making the helmets should be
shells are included in the mould when the of such that materials have high toughness
liner is expanded from the beads, and must and sufficient strength. Composites, most
therefore be polycarbonate or any other metals and many polymers are the best
higher quality plastics which can withstand choices.
the heat of the mould. In a more
sophisticated helmet more than one section A case study has been reported by the
of shells are moulded and up to five pieces author [15] on the material science of
can provide shell protection for lower part bicycle wheels, frame, components and
of a helmet or even the interior. Skate-style helmets. The idea behind this was to
helmets and a few bicycle-style helmets enhance the knowledge of the readers as
have hard shells made of ABS or well as the author to expertise the
Polypropylene. They all look very similar, knowhow regarding bicycle materials and
but actually vary considerably in the to possible improvement on them by

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
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innovations. It also helps in understanding In the U. K, they have the Personal

the application analysis and material Protective Equipment (PPE) at Work
selection. In any motorcycle, the major Regulations 1992, which replaced the
overall requirements are speed, comfort previous Construction Regulations 1989
and endurance. Bicycle helmets are related and brought into action the 1992 U. K
to comfort and safety of the riders. In this regulations. PPE must have to follow
study, the helmet materials considered was certain requirements while supplying as
a separate type as compared to other well as wearers also to follow certain
bicycle types. The design of a standard requirements. Self-employed individuals
helmet is basically crushable foam. Foe should provide their own hard hats and
any helmet design, the considerations are ensure they wear them. All forms of
related to its weight, cost and safety. The protective gears must be suitable, correctly
helmet materials lie in the separate fitted and have an easily adjustable head
category-crushable foam, and crushable band, nape and chin strap where
foams are ideal for helmet design for one appropriate. Related standards are BSEN
hard impact. Some foam used is EPS, EPP 397 and BSEN 14052 and these are
and EPU. EPS is the most available, cheap worldwide accepted standards. Bump caps
and efficient, thus it is the most common are not tested for lateral deformation and
helmet material selection. will not protect from severe impact or
crushing injuries. These are suitable for a
INDUSTRIAL GUIDE LINES FOR wide range of working environment
SAFETY HELMETS because of the range of hazards they
It is known to all of us that when we protect against. There are various other
undertake certain activities, we have to design features which can be selected to
protect our head. It is not always true that ensure that the safety helmet is fit for the
all the time we have to use bowler hats, purpose.
which we had in the earlier days to protect
our head. Today, the market for head There was a longstanding issue regarding
protection has moved on. Modern day use of helmets with chin straps, but now
head protection offers a wide range of the manufacturers have moved towards a
options and can be selected based on the more user-friendly ratchet wheel. A
particular activities being undertaken [17]. suspension type model and shell structure
In our body head is a very delicate part and has been designed for use in industrial,
we rely the most on it. Protection of head mountaineering rescue and leisure
is very important and essential because any activities. Tested to mountaineering
injury to head can cause serious damage. If standards in addition to industrial
after a minor head injury, brain function standards they provide protection to those
can be temporarily impaired and as a result activities where a greater range of hazards
of that many problems like headaches, may be present and still allow the
dizziness, fatigue, depression, irritability connection of accessories that may be
and memory loss may arise. For the required in an industrial setting as
protection of head Personal Protection mentioned earlier. Sometimes a hard hat
Equipment can be used. It can be used to comes off after an impact and thus the
prevent or lessen damage caused on the purpose of wearing it fails. Therefore, all
skull by any impact from falling or flying hard hats should have a fixing to attach a
object and many more. Using head chin strap if needed. It is evident that chin
protective gear it generally protects the straps is an effective tool in reducing head
scalp and sometimes the jaw and nape on injuries. The purpose of using ratchet
the neck. wheel is to remove the additional hazards

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

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 Journal of Recent Trends in Mechanics
Volume 4 Issue 2

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