INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networking is very important in modern technology, enabling the interconnected

systems that power the Internet, business communications, and everyday digital interactions.
Understanding the fundamentals of computer networking is essential for anyone involved in
technology, from enthusiasts to professionals.

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and

information. These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware.
Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as email,
file sharing, and internet browsing.

Computer networks first developed in 1950 for military and defense purpose. At that time they
are mainly used to send data through telephone lines and had limited use in business or
science.
Today computer networks are essential for businesses also. Modern networks offer more than
just connecting devices. They play a key role in helping businesses adapt to the digital world
and succeed. These networks have become more flexible, automated, and secure, making them
even more important in today’s business environment.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to
enable communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers,
Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over
a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network
Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device
on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-
readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access
and other security threats.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

There are a variety of fields in computer networks that are used in industries. Some of them are
as follows:

1. Internet and World Wide Web

In computer networks, we have a global internet, also known as the World Wide Web, that offers
us various features like access to websites, online services and retrieval of information. With the
help of the World Wide Web, we can browse, and we can do search, and access web pages and
multimedia content.

2. Communication

With the help of computer networks, communication is also easy because we can do email,
instant messaging, voice and video calls and video conferencing, which helps us to communicate
with each other effectively. People can use these features in their businesses and organizations to
stay connected with each other.
3. File Sharing and Data Transfer

Data transfer and file sharing are made possible by networks that connect different devices. This
covers file sharing within a business setting, file sharing between personal devices, and
downloading/uploading of content from the internet.

4. Online gaming

Multiplayer online games use computer networks to link players from all over the world,
enabling online competitions and real-time gaming experiences.

5. Remote Access and Control

Networks enable users to access and control systems and devices from a distance. This is helpful
when accessing home automation systems, managing servers, and providing remote IT support.

6. Social media

With the help of a computer network, we can use social media sites like Facebook, Twitter and
Instagram to help people set up their profiles, and we can connect with others and share content
on social media.

7. Cloud Computing

The provision of on-demand access to computing resources and services hosted in distant data
centres relies on networks. Some example of cloud computing is software as a service (SaaS),
platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as service (IaaS).

8. Online Banking and E-Commerce

Online banking and e-commerce platforms, where customers conduct financial transactions and
make online purchases, require secure computer networks.
9. Enterprise Networks

In Computer networks, we have some networks that are only used in businesses and
organizations so they can store data and share files and resources like printers, scanners, etc.

10. Healthcare

With the help of computer networks in the health industry, we can share patient records and store
the records in the form of data that is easy and secure compared to the file method. Networks are
also necessary for telemedicine and remote patient monitoring.

11. Education

Schools use networks to access online courses, virtual classrooms, and other online learning
materials. Campuses of colleges and universities frequently have extensive computer networks.

12. Transportation and Logistics

The transportation sector uses Computer Networks to manage and track shipments, plan the best
routes, and coordinate logistics activities.

13. Internet of Things (IoT) and Smart Homes

Through the Internet of Things (IoT), smart homes use networks to connect to and manage a
variety of devices, including thermostats, security cameras, and smart appliances.

14. Scientific Research

To share data, work together on projects, and access high-performance computing resources for
data analysis and scientific simulations, researchers use networks.

15. Government and Defense

With the help of computer networks, we can communicate, share data, and advance national
defence. Government agencies and the military rely on secure networks.
COMPUTER NETWORK TYPES
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically

within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:

o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

NETWORK SOFTWARE
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation, and
operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware based with
software embedded. With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN), software is
separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the
computer network.

Functions of Network Software

 Helps to set up and install computer networks

 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations

Types of Network Software

Network operating systems (NOS)

Network Operating Systems form the backbone of network management, allowing control over
resources and facilitating essential services. Large enterprises extensively use NOS for the
centralized management of complex networks, streamlining administrative tasks and enhancing
efficiency.

Asset management software

Asset management software, on the other hand, is designed to track and manage assets within an
organization. This encompasses physical assets like equipment, hardware, and real estate, as well
as intangible assets like software licenses and intellectual property. The software assists in
optimizing the use and maintenance of assets, reducing costs, and ensuring compliance with
relevant regulations and standards. It provides valuable insights into asset utilization and
lifecycle management, facilitating strategic planning and decision-making in resource allocation.

Network monitoring tools

Crucial for real-time oversight, network monitoring tools provide insights into traffic flow,
network utilization, and potential issues. They enable organizations to proactively manage
network performance, making them indispensable in maintaining optimal network health.
Network monitoring tools also facilitate the early detection of network anomalies and security
breaches, allowing for swift response and mitigation. These tools often come equipped with
customizable alerts and dashboards, providing a comprehensive view of network health and
enabling IT teams to make informed decisions based on real-time data and trends.

Network security software

This category encompasses firewalls, anti-malware tools, and intrusion detection systems, vital
for protecting networks against cyber threats. In an era of increasing digital risks, network
security software is a must-have for organizations to safeguard their data and network integrity.
Network security software has evolved to include advanced features like behavioral analytics and
AI-driven threat detection, making it more adept at identifying and responding to sophisticated
cyberattacks.

Data archiving software

Data archiving software plays a crucial role in efficiently storing, securing, and managing digital
data over extended periods. These tools ensure that data remains accessible and intact for future
reference, compliance, or recovery needs. They often include features like data compression,
deduplication, and encryption, catering to the diverse requirements of data backup and long-term
preservation.
Network configuration and change management (NCCM)

NCCM tools are essential for managing network configurations and tracking changes. They
ensure compliance and reduce risks associated with network modifications, particularly critical
for organizations with evolving and extensive network landscapes.

Cloud-based networking software

Cloud-based networking software integrates easily with other cloud services, offering enhanced
collaboration and data-sharing capabilities. Its remote accessibility ensures continuous network
management, even in remote work environments, making it a strategic tool for businesses with
distributed workforces and multiple locations.

Network virtualization software

This software allows the creation of virtual network resources, enhancing resource utilization
and network management efficiency. It’s especially beneficial for large organizations with
intricate network needs, providing flexibility and improved resource management.

PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES
1. OSI Reference Model
2. TCP/IP Reference Model
1. OSI REFERENCE MODEL-OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how different
computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7
layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities.
This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together.
OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The
OSI Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.
Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common
physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to
as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP
address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred
to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.

Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.

Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

2. TCP/IP Reference Model-Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the
Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable
communication between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet
Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific
functions that help manage different aspects of network communication, making it
essential for understanding and working with modern networks.
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Network Access Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf
of the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer.
Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
 2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP
has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of
a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection,
the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up
this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes
of establishing and validating connections.
 4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It
sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System It stands for Transmission Control

Interconnection. Protocol.

It was developed by ARPANET

OSI model has been developed by ISO
(Advanced Research Project Agency
(International Standard Organization).
Network).

It is an independent standard and generic It consists of standard protocols that lead

protocol used as a communication to the development of an internet. It is a
gateway between the network and the end communication protocol that provides the
user. connection among the hosts.

In the OSI model, the transport layer The transport layer does not provide the
provides a guarantee for the delivery of surety for the delivery of packets. But
the packets. still, we can say that it is a reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical This model is based on a horizontal

approach. approach.

In this model, the session and

In this model, the session and
presentation layer are not different layers.
presentation layers are separated, i.e.,
Both layers are included in the
both the layers are different.
application layer.

It is also known as a reference model It is an implemented model of an OSI

through which various networks are built. model.

For example, the TCP/IP model is built
from the OSI model. It is also referred to
as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides

The network layer provides only
both connection-oriented and
connectionless service.
connectionless service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden

In this model, the protocol cannot be
and can be easily replaced when the
easily replaced.
technology changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services,

In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols,
protocols, and interfaces as well as
and interfaces are not properly separated.
provides a proper distinction between
It is protocol dependent.
them. It is protocol independent.

The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices It does not provide the standardization to

like router, motherboard, switches, and the devices. It provides a connection
other hardware devices. between various computers.