Dire Dawa University Institute of Technology

College of Electrical & Computer Engineering

Fundamental of Electrical Engineering
ECEg-2052

Chapter-3
Methods of Circuit Analysis

By: Minale B.

12/4/2024 By: Minale B. 1

 Methods Circuit of Analysis
Introduction
• Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory.
• We are now prepared to apply these laws to develop two powerful techniques for
circuit analysis.

• Nodal analysis
• Mesh analysis

• With the two techniques to be developed in this chapter, we can analyze any linear
circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then solved to obtain
the required values of current or voltage.

• Nodal analysis: which is based on a systematic application of KCL & it provides a

general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the ckt variables.

• Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method.

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 Steps to Determine Node Voltages
1. Select a reference node. Assign voltage v1, v2, …vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes.
The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node Voltages.
4. Number of equations is N - 1 where N is the number of nodes in the network
including the reference node.

• The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference.

• The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero
potential.

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 Cont.
• A reference node is indicated by any of the three symbols.
(a) Common ground
(b) Ground,
(c) Chassis.

• Common symbols for indicating a reference node

• In this course we shall always use the symbol in Fig.(b).

Example-1: Determine node equations with nodal analysis for the circuit given below.

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 Cont.

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 Example-2
• Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown in Figure below.

Solution; applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

At node 1 At node 2

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 Example-3
• Determine the voltages at the nodes in figure below Solution
At node 1

At node 2 3v1 - 2v2 - v3 = 12

Multiplying by 8 and
rearranging terms, we get
At node 3
2v1 - 3v2 + v3 = 0

Using the elimination technique

5v1 - 5v2 = 12 v1 = 4.8 V,
-2v1 + 4v2 = 0 v2 = 2.4 V,
2v2 - v2 = 2.4 v3 = -2.4 V

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 Nodal analysis with Voltage sources

• Case 1: The voltage source is connected between a non reference node and the
reference node: The non-reference node voltage is equal to the magnitude of voltage
source and the number of unknown Non-reference nodes is reduced by one.
• Case2: The voltage source is connected between two non-referenced nodes: a super
node is formed.

• A super node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source

connected between two non reference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel with it.

• The required two equations for regulating the two non reference node voltages are
obtained by the KCL of the super node and the relationship of node voltages due to
the voltage source.

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 Cont.
• To apply KVL to the super node.

-v2 + 5 + v3 = 0 ⇒ v2 - v3 = 5
Properties of a super node:
1. The voltage source inside the super node
Figure: A circuit with a super node provides a constraint equation needed to solve
for the node voltages.
2. A super node has no voltage of its own.
3. A super node requires the application of both
KCL and KVL.

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 Example-4
• For the circuit shown in Figure below, find the node voltages.
Solution:
• The supernode contains the 2-V source, nodes 1 and 2, and
the 10-Ω resistor. Applying KCL to the supernode as shown in
Fig. 3.10(a) gives

Figure 3.9 (1)

(2)
From Eqs. (1) and (2), we write

Figure 3.10
Apply: (a) KCL to the supernode, (b) KVL to the loop.

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 Mesh Analysis
• It is another procedure for analyzing circuits to find the current flowing
through various components in a circuit.
• Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
• A mesh is a loop does not contain any other loops within it.
• Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
• Mesh analysis is only applicable to a circuit that is planar.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, .., in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
4. Number of equations is equal to number of meshes in the network.

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 Cont.
Example: A circuit with two meshes

• For example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh. The
current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis, we are applying
KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

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 Cont.
Example: Find the branch current I1, I2, and I3 using mesh analysis.

For mesh 1

− 15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 10 = 0
3i1 − 2i2 = 1

For mesh 2

6i2 + 4i2 + 10(i2 − i1 ) − 10 = 0

• We can find i1 and i2 by substitution method
or Cramer’s rule. Then, i1 = 2i2 − 1

I1 = i1 , I 2 = i2 , I 3 = i1 − i2 I1=1A
I2=1A

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 Cont.
Example; Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the circuit of Figure below.

For mesh 2,

24i2 + 4(i2 − i3 ) + 10(i2 − i1 ) = 0

− 5i1 + 19i2 − 2i3 = 0
For mesh 3,
Solution; Apply KVL to each mesh.
For mesh 1,
4 I 0 + 12(i3 − i1 ) + 4(i3 − i2 ) = 0
At node A, I 0 = I1 − i2 ,
− 24 + 10(i1 − i2 ) + 12(i1 − i3 ) = 0 4(i − i ) + 12(i − i ) + 4(i − i ) = 0
1 2 3 1 3 2
11i1 − 5i2 − 6i3 = 12 − i1 − i2 + 2i3 = 0

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 Cont.
• we can calculateIni1,matrix i3 by Cramer’s rule, and find I0.
i2 andform,

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 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
• Figure below; A circuit with a current source.

• A super-mesh formed when two meshes have a

dependent or independent current source in common.

Case1:
• Current source exist only in one mesh.
• One mesh variable is reduced. So, 𝐢𝟐 = −𝟓𝑨

i1 = −2A

Case 2:
• Current source exists between two meshes, a
super-mesh is obtained.

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 Cont.
• Therefore, applying KVL to the super-mesh gives

• We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect. Applying
KCL to node 0 gives:

Note the following properties of a super-mesh

1. The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint equation
necessary to solve for the mesh currents.
2. A supermesh has no current of its own.
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

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 Example
• For the circuit in Figure given below, find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis.

Solution:
• Note that meshes 1 and 2 form a super mesh since they have an independent current
source 5A in common.
• Also, meshes 2 and 3 form another super mesh because they have a dependent
current source 3Io in common. The two super meshes intersect and form a larger
super-mesh as shown.
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 Cont.
• Applying KVL to the larger super mesh,

(1)

• For the independent current source, we apply KCL to node P:

(2)

• For the dependent current source, we apply KCL to node Q:

(3)

Solving equation (1) to (4) gives

(4)

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 Nodal and Mesh Analysis by Inspection
The analysis of equations can be obtained by direct inspection.
a) For circuits with only resistors and independent current sources
b) For planar circuits with only resistors and independent voltage sources

• Nodal and mesh analysis by inspection allows you to quickly write

the system of equations for circuit analysis without explicitly
applying KCL or KVL to each node or loop.
• This method is especially powerful for circuits with a clear
layout and a manageable number of nodes or meshes.

A nonplanar circuit A planar circuit

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 Cont.
• In the Figure above (a), the circuit has two non reference nodes and the node equations.

I1 = I 2 + G1v1 + G2 (v1 − v2 ) (3.7)

I 2 + G2 (v1 − v2 ) = G3v2 (3.8)
→ MATRIX
G1 + G2 − G2   v1   I1 − I 2 
=
 − G2 G2 + G3  v2   I 2 

• Observe that each of the diagonal terms is the sum of the conductances connected directly
to node 1 or 2, while the off-diagonal terms are the negatives of the conductances connected
between the nodes.

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 Cont.
In general, the node voltage equations in terms of the conductance's is
or simply
Gv = i G11 G12  G1 N  v1  i1 
G G  G  v  i 
where
G : the conductance matrix,
 21 22 2N
 2  =  2 
v : the output vector,           
G G  G  v  i 
 N1 N 2 NN   N   N
i : the input vector

• In figure (b) above the circuit has two non reference nodes and the node equations were derived as:

• We notice that each of the diagonal terms is the sum of the resistances in the related mesh, while
each of the off-diagonal terms is the negative of the resistance common to meshes 1 and 2.

 R1 + R3 − R3   i1   v1 
=

 − R3 
R2 + R3  i2  
   − v2 

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 Cont.
• In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh-current equations as the resistances term is

 R11 R12  R1N  i1  v1 

R R22  R2 N  i2  v2 
 21   =   simply
           Ri = v

R     
RN 2  RNN  iN  v N 
 N1
where
R : the resistance matrix,
i : the output vector,
v : the input vector

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 Example
• Write the node voltage matrix equations in Figure below.

•The off-diagonal terms are

1
G12 = − = −0.2, G13 = G14 = 0
5
1 1
G21 = −0.2, G23 = − = −0.125, G24 = − = −1
8 1
G31 = 0, G32 = −0.125, G34 = −0.125
The circuit has 4 non reference nodes, so
G41 = 0, G42 = −1, G43 = −0.125
1 1 1 1 1 i1 = 3,
G11 = + = 0.3, G22 = + + = 1.325
5 10 5 8 1 i2 = −1 − 2 = −3,
1 1 1 1 1 1 i3 = 0, i4 = 2 + 4 = 6
G33 = + + = 0.5, G44 = + + = 1.625
8 8 4 8 2 1
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 Cont.
The node-voltage equations are

 0.3 − 0.2 0 0  v1   3 

− 0.2 1.325 − 0.125 − 1  v   − 3 
  2  =  
 0 − 0.125 0.5 − 0.125  v3   0
 0 −1 −  v   6 
 0.125 1 .625  4   

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 Example
• Write the mesh current equations in Figure below

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 Cont.
The input voltage vector v in volts The mesh-current equations are

v1 = 4, v2 = 10 − 4 = 6,  9 − 2 − 2 0 0  i1 
− 2     4 
v3 = −12 + 6 = −6, v4 = 0, v5 = −6 10 − 4 − 1 − 1 i2  6 
  
− 2 − 4 9 0 0  i3  = − 6
 0     
− 1 0 8 − 3 i4  0 
   − 6
 0 − 1 0 − 3 4  i5   

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 Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis
• Both nodal and mesh analyses provide a systematic way of analyzing a complex network.

• Nodal Analysis (also known as Node-Voltage Method): It is based on the application of

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
• In this method, the unknowns are the node voltages, and the equations are derived by
setting up a relationship between the currents at each node.

• Mesh Analysis (also known as Mesh-Current Method): It is based on the application of

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
• The unknowns in this method are the mesh currents, and the equations are obtained by
summing the voltage drops around each loop or mesh in the circuit.

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 Circuit Theorems
• Introduction
• Linearity property
• Superposition
• Source transformations
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Maximum power transfer

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 Introduction
• The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an
evolution from simple to complex circuits.
• To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some
theorems to simplify circuit analysis.

A Large Simplify
Complex Circuits Circuit Analysis

Circuit Theorems

‧ Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧ Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧ Source transformation ‧ Maximum power transfer

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 Linearity
• Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship
between cause and effect.

• The property is a combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) property

and the additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the
excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called the
response) is multiplied by the same constant.
• For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the output v,
v = iR

• If the current is increased by a constant k, then voltage increases

correspondingly by k, that is

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 Cont.
• The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is
the sum of the responses to each input applied separately. Using the
voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if

v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R

Then applying (i1 + i2) gives

v = (i1+ i2)R = i1R + i2R = v1+ v2

• A linear circuit consists of only,

• We say that a resistor is a linear element b/se • linear elements
the voltage-current relationship satisfies both • linear dependent sources
the homogeneity and the additivity properties. • independent sources

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 Cont.
• In General, A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related to its input.

vs = 10V → i = 2A
2
v
p =i R =2
: nonlinear
R vs = 1V → i = 0.2A
vs = 5mV  i =1mA

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 Example
• Assume I0 = 1 A and use linearity to find the actual value of I0 in
the circuit given below.
Applying KCL at node 1 gives

V2 = V1 + 2 I 2 = 8 + 6 = 14V,
V2
I3 =
= 2A
7
Solution Applying KCL at node 2 gives I 4 = I 3 + I 2 = 5A
 Is = 5 A
If I 0 = 1A, then
I 0 = 1A → I S = 5A
v1 = (3 + 5) I 0 = 8V
I1 = v1 / 4 = 2A, I 0 = 3A  I S = 15A

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 Superposition Theorem
• The superposition principle states that the voltage across or current
through an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the
voltages across or currents through that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
• To apply the Superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:
1) We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent
sources are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source
by 0V (a short circuit), and every current source by 0A (an open circuit).
2) Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

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 Steps to Apply Superposition Principle
1) Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or
mesh analysis.
2) Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3) Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
• Superposition involves more work but simpler circuits.
• Superposition is based on linearity. For this reason it is not
applicable to the effect on power.

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 Example-1
• Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit in Figure below.
• To get v2 we set the voltage source to
zero & use current division.

8
i3 = (3) = 2A
4+8

v2 = 4i3 = 8V
Solution:
• Since there are two sources, let
V = V1 + V2 v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8 = 10V
Use voltage division to get v1
4
V1 = ( 6) = 2 V Fig (a) Calculating v1 (b) calculating v2.
4+8
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 Example-2
• Find io in the circuit given below using superposition.

We let,
io = io′ + io′′…………..(1)
• where io’ and io′′ are due to the 4-A current
source and 20-V voltage source respectively.
• To obtain io′ , we turn off the 20-V source
and to obtain io′′, we turn of 4A current
source.

Solution:
• The circuit in Figure above involves a dependent source, which must be left intact.

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 Cont.
Now let us obtain io′ , by turn off the 20-V source

• For loop 3,
-5i1 - 1i2 + 10i3 + 5io′ = 0…………(4)

• But at node 0,
i3 = i1 - io′ = 4 - io ..........................(5)

Substituting Eqs. (2) and (5) into Eqs. (3)

& (4) gives two simultaneous equations.
• Apply mesh analysis in order to obtain io′.
• For loop 1, 3i2 - 2io′ = 8
i1 = 4 A ………………(2) i2 + 5io′ = 20
io′ = 3.06A
• For loop 2,
-3i1 + 6i2 - 1i3 - 5io′ = 0……(3)

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 Cont.
To obtain i′′o, we turn off the 4-A current source

• But i5 = -io′′ Substituting this in the Eqs 6&7 yields,

6i4 - 4io′′ = 0
i4 + 5io′′ = -20
i′′o = -3.53A

Finally io = io′ + io′′= 3.06A-3.53A

For loop 4, KVL gives io= -0.47A
6i4 - i5 - 5io′′ = 0……….(6)

For loop 5,
-i4 + 10i5 - 20 + 5io′′ = 0.........(7)

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 Exercise
For the circuit shown in Fig. below, use superposition theorem to find i.

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 Source Transformation
• A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series
with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
• The two circuits in Fig. are equivalent-provided
they have the same voltage-current relation at
terminals a-b.
• In order for the two circuits to be equivalent.
Hence, source transformation requires that

Source transformation of independent sources.

• Note that the arrow of the current source is directed

toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.

• Impossible source transformation

✓ ideal voltage source (R = 0)
• Source transformation of dependent sources. ✓ ideal current source (R=)

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 Example-1
• Use source transformation to find Vo in the circuit of given below.
• We now combine the 3Ω & 6Ω resistors in parallel
to get 2Ω. We also combine the 2A and 4A current
sources to get a 2A source.

Solution:
• We first transform the current and voltage sources
to obtain the transformed circuit in fig (a).
• Combining the 2Ω & 4Ω and resistors in series and
transforming the 12-V voltage source gives in fig(b) us.

• We use current division in Fig.(c) to get i.

and

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 Example-2
• Using source transformation, find the power associated with the 6 V source.

Solution
Solution

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 Cont.

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 Cont.

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 Cont.

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 Exercise
• Find io in the circuit of Fig. 4.19 using source transformation.

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 Thevenin Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a portion of the circuit at a pair of nodes
can be replaced by a voltage source Voc in series with a resistor RTH,
where Voc is the open circuit voltage and RTH is the Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance obtained by considering the open circuit with all
independent sources made zero.

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 Procedure of Thevenin’s Theorm
a. Find the open circuit voltage at the terminals, Voc.
b. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, RTH at the terminals when
all independent sources are zero:
• Replacing independent voltage sources by short circuit.
• Replacing independent current sources by open circuit.
c. Reconnect the load to the Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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 Example-1
• Use Thevenin’s Theorem to find V0 for the circuit shown below.

Solution
• First find Voc:

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 Cont.

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 Example-2
• Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig below, to the
left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16, and 36

Solution

• To find RTH
• 32V voltage source Short.
• 2A current source Open.

RT h = 4 || 12 + 1
4 12
= + 1 = 4
16

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 Cont.
• Find VTH consider the circuit in fig. below & apply mesh analysis to the two loops.

• Alternatively, it is easier to use nodal analysis. We ignore the 1Ω resistor since no

current flows through it. At the top node, KCL gives:

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 Cont.
• Finally the Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in fig. below & the current
through RL is;

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 Exercise
• Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the figure 4.31 at terminals a-b.

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 Norton’s Theorem
• It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
• In fact, from what we know about source
transformation, the Thevenin and Norton
resistances are equal; that is,

Figure 4.37 (a) Original circuit, (b) Norton equivalent circuit.

• To find the Norton current we determine the short-circuit current flowing from terminal a to b
in both circuits.
• Observe the close relationship between Norton’s
and Thevenin’s theorems:

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 Cont.
• The Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are related by a source transformation.
▪ To determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance at terminals a & b when all independent sources
are turned off.

• The open-circuit and short-circuit tests are sufficient to

find any Thevenin or Norton equivalent, of a circuit
which contains at least one independent source.

Here we will consider three cases:

1. Circuit containing only independent sources.
2. Circuit containing only dependent sources.
3. Circuit containing both independent and dependent sources.

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 Example-1
• Use Norton’s Theorem to find V0 for the circuit shown below.

Solution
• First find Isc:

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 Cont.

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 Example -2
• Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. 4.39 at terminals a-b.
Solution:
• We find in the same way we find in the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. Set the independent sources equal
to zero. This leads to the circuit in Fig. 4.40(a), from
which we find Thus,

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 Cont.

Figure 4.40: (a) RN (b) isc (c) VTh=Voc

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 Cont.
• Alternatively, we may determine from We obtain as the open-circuit voltage across
terminals (a) and (b) in Fig. 4.40(c). Using mesh analysis, we obtain

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 Exercise
• Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig. 4.42, at terminals a-b.

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 Maximum Power Transfer
• Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL, RTh).

Fig. 48: The circuit used for maximum power transfer. Fig. 49: Power delivered to the load as a function of RL.

• Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the Pmax of a linear circuit that can deliver to a load.
• We assume that we can adjust the load resistance. If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin
equivalent except for the load, as shown in Fig. 4.48, the power delivered to the load is

• For a given circuit, and are fixed. By varying the load resistance
the power delivered to the load varies as sketched in Fig. 4.49.

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 Cont.
• To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we differentiate P with respect to
RL and set the result equal to zero. We obtain

This implies that

• Showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin resistance.

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 Example-1
• Find the value of for Pmax transfer in the circuit of Fig. 4.50. Find the maximum power.

Solution: Figure 4.50

• We need to find the Thevenin resistance and the Thevenin voltage VTH across the terminals a-
b. To get we use the circuit in Fig. 4.51(a) and obtain

Figure 4.51

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 Cont.

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 Exercise
• Determine the value of that will draw the maximum power from the rest of the
circuit in Fig. 4.52. Calculate the maximum power.

Figure 4.52

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