What is Computer Graphics?

Computer graphics is the branch of computer science that deals with generating images with the
aid of computers. Today, computer graphics is a core technology in digital photography, film,
video games, cell phone and computer displays, and many specialized applications. A great deal
of specialized hardware and software has been developed, with the displays of most devices
being driven by computer graphics hardware. It is a vast and recently developed area of
computer science. The phrase was coined in 1960 by computer graphics researchers Verne
Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing.

Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a computer. The end product of
the computer graphics is a picture it may be a business graph, drawing, and engineering. In today
life, computer graphics has now become a common element in user interfaces, T.V. commercial
motion pictures.

Sketch something on a paper is a piece of analog information. Drawing picture on a computer

screen is a piece of digital information. Inside the computer our picture is stored as a series of
numbers. Change the numbers and we can change the picture, in the blink of an eye or even
quicker. It’s easy to shift our picture around the screen, scale it up or down, rotate it, swap the
colors, and transform it in all kinds of other ways. Once it’s finished we can save it, incorporate
it into a text document, print it out, upload it to a web page, or email it to a client or work
colleague- all because it’s digital information. We are unable to do all above mention actions on
analog information.
Raster and Vector Graphics
Before we begin with what vector graphics and raster graphics are, we must understand a few
basic terms:
Pixel : In Computer graphics a pixel, dots, or picture element is a physical point in a picture. A
pixel is simply the smallest addressable element of a picture represented on a screen.
A majority of pictures that we see on our computer screen are raster images. The selfie that you
click with your mobile phone is another example of a raster image. An image is made up using a
collection of pixels referred to as a bitmap.
Bitmap : In computer graphics, a bitmap is a mapping from some domain (for example, a range
of integers) to bits, that is, values which are zero or one. It is also called a bit array or bitmap
index. The more general term pixmap refers to a map of pixels, where each one may store more
than two colors, thus using more than one bit per pixel. Often bitmap is used for this as well. In
some contexts, the term bitmap implies one bit per pixel, while pixmap is used for images with
multiple bits per pixel.

Resolution : Resolution is a measure used to describe the sharpness and clarity of an image or
picture and is often used as a metric for judging the quality of monitors, printers, digital images
and a various other hardware and software technologies. The term is especially popular in the
mobile industry for describing a mobile device's display capabilities, and also in the
entertainment media to distinguish the visual quality of movies and to distinguish between high
definition and standard definition movies. It is defined as width by height, or W x H, where W is
the number of horizontal pixels and H is the number of vertical pixels. For example, the
resolution of an HDTV is 1920 x 1080.

Aliasing: In computer graphics, the process by which smooth curves and other lines become
jagged because the resolution of the graphics device or file is not high enough to represent a
smooth curve. Smoothing and antialiasing techniques can reduce the effect of aliasing.

Antialiasing: Antialiasing is a technique used in computer graphics to remove the aliasing

effect. The aliasing effect is the appearance of jagged edges or “jaggies” in a rasterized image
(an image rendered using pixels). The problem of jagged edges technically occurs due to
distortion of the image when scan conversion is done with sampling at a low frequency, which is
also known as Undersampling. Aliasing occurs when real-world objects which comprise of
smooth, continuous curves are rasterized using pixels.
Cause of anti-aliasing is Undersampling. Undersampling results in loss of information of the
picture. Undersampling occurs when sampling is done at a frequency lower than Nyquist
sampling frequency. To avoid this loss, we need to have our sampling frequency at least twice
that of highest frequency occurring in the object.

Raster graphics
Raster graphics, also called bitmap graphics, a type of digital image that uses tiny
rectangular pixels, or picture elements, arranged in a grid formation to represent an image.
Because the format can support a wide range of colors and depict subtle graduated tones, it is
well-suited for displaying continuous-tone images such as photographs or shaded drawings,
along with other detailed images.

Raster graphics has origins in television technology, with images constructed much like the
pictures on a television screen. A raster graphic is made up of a collection of tiny, uniformly
sized pixels, which are arranged in a two-dimensional grid made up of columns and rows.
Each pixel contains one or more bits of information, depending on the degree of detail in the
image. For example, a black-and-white image contains only one bit per pixel (a binary bit can be
in one of two states; thus, a single bit can represent white or black); an image with shading
and color commonly contains 24 bits of information per pixel—with 224, or more than 16 million,
possible states per pixel. Known as “true color,” 24-bit color can realistically depict color
images. The number of bits stored in each pixel is known as the color depth. The number of
pixels, called resolution, affects how much detail can be depicted in an image. Resolution is
often expressed as the number of pixels in a column times the number of pixels in a row (for
example, 800 × 600).

Although raster graphics saw some use in the 1970s and ’80s, it was mostly limited to expensive
graphics workstations (i.e., high-end computers that were specially optimized for working with
graphics). As the graphics capability of personal computers improved in the 1990s, raster
graphics became widely used. Images produced from optical scanners and digital cameras are
raster graphics, as are most images on the Internet. A commonly used graphics program for
working with raster images is Adobe Photoshop. Raster images use bit maps to store
information. This means a large file needs a large bitmap. The larger the image, the more disk
space the image file will take up. As an example, a 640 x 480 image requires information to be
stored for 307,200 pixels, while a 3072 x 2048 image (from a 6.3 Megapixel digital camera)
needs to store information for a whopping 6,291,456 pixels. We use algorithms which compress
images to help reduce these file sizes. Image formats like jpeg and gif are common compressed
image formats. Scaling down these images is easy but enlarging a bitmap makes it pixelated or
simply blurred. Hence for images which need to scaled to different sizes, we use vector graphics.
.

Vector Graphics

Unlike pixel-based raster images, vector graphics are based on mathematical formulas that define
geometric primitives such as polygons, lines, curves, circles and rectangles. Because vector
graphics are composed of true geometric primitives, they are best used to represent more
structured images, like line art graphics with flat, uniform colors. Most created images (as
opposed to natural images) meet these specifications, including logos, letterhead, and fonts.
Inherently, vector-based graphics are more malleable than raster images — thus, they are much
more versatile, flexible and easy to use. The most obvious advantage of vector images over raster
graphics is that vector images are quickly and perfectly scalable. There is no upper or lower limit
for sizing vector images. Just as the rules of mathematics apply identically to computations
involving two-digit numbers or two-hundred-digit numbers, the formulas that govern the
rendering of vector images apply identically to graphics of any size.
Further, unlike raster graphics, vector images are not resolution-dependent. Vector images have
no fixed intrinsic resolution, rather they display at the resolution capability of whatever output
device (monitor, printer) is rendering them. Also, because vector graphics need not memorize the
contents of millions of tiny pixels, these files tend to be considerably smaller than their raster
counterparts. Overall, vector graphics are more efficient and versatile. Common vector formats
include AI, EPS, SVG, and sometimes PDF.

History of Computer Graphics

 1941: Although the punched card was first used in 1801 to control textile looms, they
were first used as an input medium for “computing machines” in 1941. Special
typewriter-like devices were used to punch holes through sheets of think paper. These
sheets could then be read (usually by optically based machines) by computers. They
were the first input device to load programs into computers.

 1941: Salustri used punched cards in 1980 in his first-year Introduction to Computing
course at the University of Toronto.
 1950:Ben Laposky created the first graphic images, an Oscilloscope, generated by an
electronic (analog) machine. The image was produced by manipulating electronic
beams and recording them onto high-speed film.

 1951:The Whirlwind computer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was the

first computer with a video display of real time data.
 1951: Jay Forrester and Robert Everett of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
produce Whirlwind, a mainframe computer that can display crude images on a television
monitor or VDU (visual display unit).

 1955: Directly descended from Whirlwind, MIT's SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground

Equipment) computer uses simple vector graphics to display radar images and becomes a
key part of the US missile defense system. The light pen is introduced.

 1959: General Motors and IBM develop Design Augmented by Computers-1 (DAC-1), a
CAD (computer-aided design) system to help engineers design cars.
 1961: John Whitney, Sr. uses computer graphics to design a captivating title sequence for
the Alfred Hitchcock thriller Vertigo.
 1961: MIT student Steve Russell programs Spacewar!, the first graphical computer game,
on a DEC PDP-1 minicomputer.
 1963: Ivan Sutherland, a pioneer of human-computer interaction (making computers
intuitively easy for humans to use), develops Sketchpad (also called Robot Draftsman),
one of the first computer-aided design packages, in which images can be drawn on the
screen using a lightpen (an electronic pen/stylus wired into the computer). Later,
Sutherland develops virtual reality equipment and flight simulators.
 1965: Howard Wise holds an exhibition of computer-drawn art at his pioneering gallery
in Manhattan, New York.
 1966: NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) develops an image-processing program
called VICAR (Video Image Communication and Retrieval), running on IBM
mainframes, to process images of the moon captured by spacecraft.
 1970: Bézier curves are developed, soon becoming an indispensable tool in vector
graphics.
 1972: Atari releases PONG, a popular version of ping-pong (table tennis) played by one
or two players on a computer screen.
 1973: Richard Shoup produces SuperPaint, a forerunner of modern computer graphic
packages, at the Xerox PARC (Palto Alto Research Center) laboratory.
 1970s: Ivan Sutherland's student Edwin Catmull becomes one of the pioneers of 3D
computer-graphic animation, later playing key roles at Lucasfilm, Pixar, and Disney.
 1981: UK company Quantel develops Paintbox, a revolutionary computer-graphic
program that allows TV producers and filmakers to edit and manipulate video images
digitally.
 1982: The movie Tron, starring Jeff Bridges, mixes live action and computer graphic
imagery in a story that takes a man deep inside a computer system.
 1980s: The appearance of the affordable, easy-to-use Apple Macintosh computer paves
the way for desktop publishing (designing things on your own small office computer)
 with popular computer graphic packages such as Aldus PageMaker (1985) and
QuarkXPress (1987).
 1985: Microsoft releases the first version of a basic raster-graphics drawing program
called MS Paint. Thanks to its stripped-down simplicity, it becomes one of the world's
most popular computer art programs.
 1990: The first version of Adobe PhotoShop (one of the world's most popular
professional graphic design packages) is released. A simple, affordable home graphics
program called PaintShop (later PaintShop Pro) is launched the same year.
 1993: University of Illinois student Marc Andreessen develops Mosaic, the first web
browser to show text and images side-by-side, prompting a huge explosion in interest in
the Web virtually overnight.
 1995: Toy Story, produced by Pixar Animation Studios (founded by Apple's Steve Jobs,
with Ed Catmull as its chief technology officer) demonstrates the impressive possibilities
of CGI graphics in moviemaking. Stunning follow-up movies from the same stable
include A Bug's Life, Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo, and The Incredibles.
 1995: The GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) is developed by University of
California students Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis as an open-source alternative to
PhotoShop..
 1999: The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) begins development of SVG (Scalable
Vector Graphics), a way of using text-based (XML) files to provide higher-quality
images on the Web. SVG images can include elements of both conventional vector and
raster graphics.
 2007: Apple launches its iPhone and iPod Touch products with touchscreen graphical
user interfaces.
 2017: Microsoft announces it will not kill off its basic but very popular Paint program,
loved by computer artists for over 30 years.

Applications of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation and storage of different type of images and
objects.
Some of the applications of computer graphics are:
1. Computer Art: Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial art which
include animation packages, paint packages. These packages provide facilities for designing
object shapes and specifying object motion. Cartoon drawing, paintings, logo design can
also be done.

2. Computer Aided Drawing: Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft is done with the
help of computer aided drawing, this helps in providing minute details to the drawing and
producing more accurate and sharp drawings with better specifications.

3. Presentation Graphics: For the preparation of reports or summarizing the financial,

statistical, mathematical, scientific, economic data for research reports, managerial
 reports, moreover creation of bar graphs, pie charts, time chart, can be done using the
tools present in computer graphics.

4. Entertainment: Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie industry
and game industry. Used for creating motion pictures , music video, television shows,
cartoon animation films. In the game industry where focus and interactivity are the key
players, computer graphics helps in providing such features in the efficient way.

5. Education: Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching huge number
of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and learn manner. Using computer
graphics many educational models can be created through which more interest can be
generated among the students regarding the subject.

6. Training: Specialized system for training like simulators can be used for training the
candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short span of time with better understanding.
Creation of training modules using computer graphics is simple and very useful.

7. Visualization: Today the need of visualize things have increased drastically, the need of
visualization can be seen in many advance technologies , data visualization helps in
finding insights of the data , to check and study the behavior of processes around us we
need appropriate visualization which can be achieved through proper usage of computer
graphics.

8. Image Processing: Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in order to be

used in different places. Processing of existing images into refined ones for better
interpretation is one of the many applications of computer graphics.

9. Machine Drawing: Computer graphics is very frequently used for designing, modifying
and creation of various parts of machine and the whole machine itself, the main reason
behind using computer graphics for this purpose is the precision and clarity we get from
such drawing is ultimate and extremely desired for the safe manufacturing of machine
using these drawings.

10. Graphical User Interface: The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus, graphical
objects helps in creating a user friendly environment where working is easy and pleasant,
using computer graphics we can create such an atmosphere where everything can be
automated and anyone can get the desired action performed in an easy fashion.

These are some of the applications of computer graphics due to which it’s popularity has
increased to a huge extend and will keep on increasing with the progress in technology.

CAD and CAM

Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined by geometrical

parameters. These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional

representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily altered by changing relevant

parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of

representations and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions.

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses geometrical design data to control automated

machinery. CAM systems are associated with computer numerical control (CNC) or direct

numerical control (DNC) systems. These systems differ from older forms of numerical control

(NC) in that geometrical data are encoded mechanically. Since both CAD and CAM use

computer-based methods for encoding geometrical data, it is possible for the processes of

design and manufacture to be highly integrated. Computer-aided design and manufacturing

systems are commonly referred to as CAD/CAM.

THE ORIGINS OF CAD/CAM

CAD had its origins in three separate sources, which also serve to highlight the basic

operations that CAD systems provide. The first source of CAD resulted from attempts to

automate the drafting process. These developments were pioneered by the General Motors

Research Laboratories in the early 1960s. One of the important time-saving advantages of

computer modeling over traditional drafting methods is that the former can be quickly

corrected or manipulated by changing a model's parameters. The second source of CAD was

in the testing of designs by simulation. The use of computer modeling to test products was

pioneered by high-tech industries like aerospace and semiconductors. The third source of

CAD development resulted from efforts to facilitate the flow from the design process to the

manufacturing process using numerical control (NC) technologies, which enjoyed widespread
use in many applications by the mid-1960s. It was this source that resulted in the linkage

between CAD and CAM. One of the most important trends in CAD/CAM technologies is the

ever-tighter integration between the design and manufacturing stages of CAD/CAM-based

production processes.

The development of CAD and CAM and particularly the linkage between the two overcame

traditional NC shortcomings in expense, ease of use, and speed by enabling the design and

manufacture of a part to be undertaken using the same system of encoding geometrical data.

This innovation greatly shortened the period between design and manufacture and greatly

expanded the scope of production processes for which automated machinery could be

economically used. Just as important, CAD/CAM gave the designer much more direct control

over the production process, creating the possibility of completely integrated design and

manufacturing processes.

The rapid growth in the use of CAD/CAM technologies after the early 1970s was made

possible by the development of mass-produced silicon chips and the microprocessor, resulting

in more readily affordable computers. As the price of computers continued to decline and

their processing power improved, the use of CAD/CAM broadened from large firms using

large-scale mass production techniques to firms of all sizes. The scope of operations to which

CAD/CAM was applied broadened as well. In addition to parts-shaping by traditional

machine tool processes such as stamping, drilling, milling, and grinding, CAD/CAM has

come to be used by firms involved in producing consumer electronics, electronic components,

molded plastics, and a host of other products. Computers are also used to control a number of

manufacturing processes (such as chemical processing) that are not strictly defined as CAM

because the control data are not based on geometrical parameters.

Using CAD, it is possible to simulate in three dimensions the movement of a part through a

production process. This process can simulate feed rates, angles and speeds of machine tools,

the position of part-holding clamps, as well as range and other constraints limiting the

operations of a machine. The continuing development of the simulation of various

manufacturing processes is one of the key means by which CAD and CAM systems are

becoming increasingly integrated. CAD/CAM systems also facilitate communication among

those involved in design, manufacturing, and other processes. This is of particular importance

when one firm contracts another to either design or produce a component.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Modeling with CAD systems offers a number of advantages over traditional drafting methods

that use rulers, squares, and compasses. For example, designs can be altered without erasing

and redrawing. CAD systems also offer "zoom" features analogous to a camera lens, whereby

a designer can magnify certain elements of a model to facilitate inspection. Computer models

are typically three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much as one could rotate an

actual three dimensional model in one's hand, enabling the designer to gain a fuller sense of

the object. CAD systems also lend themselves to modeling cutaway drawings, in which the

internal shape of a part is revealed, and to illustrating the spatial relationships among a system

of parts.

To understand CAD it is also useful to understand what CAD cannot do. CAD systems have

no means of comprehending real-world concepts, such as the nature of the object being

designed or the function that object will serve. CAD systems function by their capacity to

codify geometrical concepts. Thus the design process using CAD involves transferring a

designer's idea into a formal geometrical model. Efforts to develop computer-based "artificial
intelligence" (AI) have not yet succeeded in penetrating beyond the mechanical—represented

by geometrical (rule-based) modeling.

Other limitations to CAD are being addressed by research and development in the field of

expert systems. This field is derived from research done in AI. One example of an expert

system involves incorporating information about the nature of materials—their weight, tensile

strength, flexibility, and so on—into CAD software. By including this and other information,

the CAD system could then "know" what an expert engineer knows when that engineer

creates a design. The system could then mimic the engineer's thought pattern and actually

"create" more of the design. Expert systems might involve the implementation of more

abstract principles, such as the nature of gravity and friction, or the function and relation of

commonly used parts, such as levers or nuts and bolts. Expert systems might also come to

change the way data are stored and retrieved in CAD/CAM systems, supplanting the

hierarchical system with one that offers greater flexibility. Such futuristic concepts, however,

are all highly dependent on our abilities to analyze human decision processes and to translate

these into mechanical equivalents if possible.

One of the key areas of development in CAD technologies is the simulation of performance.

Among the most common types of simulation are testing for response to stress and modeling

the process by which a part might be manufactured or the dynamic relationships among a

system of parts. In stress tests, model surfaces are shown by a grid or mesh, that distort as the

part comes under simulated physical or thermal stress. Dynamics tests function as a

complement or substitute for building working prototypes. The ease with which a part's

specifications can be changed facilitates the development of optimal dynamic efficiencies,

both as regards the functioning of a system of parts and the manufacture of any given part.
 Simulation is also used in electronic design automation, in which simulated flow of current

through a circuit enables the rapid testing of various component configurations.

The processes of design and manufacture are, in some sense, conceptually separable. Yet the

design process must be undertaken with an understanding of the nature of the production

process. It is necessary, for example, for a designer to know the properties of the materials

with which the part might be built, the various techniques by which the part might be shaped,

and the scale of production that is economically viable. The conceptual overlap between

design and manufacture is suggestive of the potential benefits of CAD and CAM and the

reason they are generally considered together as a system.

Recent technical developments have fundamentally impacted the utility of CAD/CAM

systems. For example, the ever-increasing processing power of personal computers has given

them viability as a vehicle for CAD/CAM application. Another important trend is toward the

establishment of a single CAD-CAM standard, so that different data packages can be

exchanged without manufacturing and delivery delays, unnecessary design revisions, and

other problems that continue to bedevil some CAD-CAM initiatives. Finally, CAD-CAM

software continues to evolve in such realms as visual representation and integration of

modeling and testing applications.

Raster and Vector Display Technology

Display technology Graphical displays are generally of two types: vector displays and raster
displays. Vector displays Vector displays generally display lines, specified by their endpoints.
Vector display systems operate by direct control of the electron beam of a cathode ray tube (CRT
—discussed below). Tektronics was a company that dominated the market for vector displays.
Vector displays are becoming increasingly rare due to the advent of low-cost raster display
technology. Vector displays must be periodically refreshed (at least the older models required
this). The time required to refresh was proportional to the complexity of the scene, therefore
complex scenes can be impractical for vector displays. However, vector displays have certain
advantages, such as the absence of aliasing. Aliasing is the jagged appearance of primitives as
displayed on a raster device. This phenomenon is also known as “the jaggies”, or sometimes “the
staircase effect”. This problem is resolved by various anti-aliasing techniques (to be discussed
later in the term).
Raster displays typically have an array of addressable dots, which can be individually set to a
particular color or intensity. Raster displays can be implemented by several technologies.
Currently the most popular is the cathode ray tube, which can implement both raster and vector
displays.

Cathode ray tube (CRT) technology

The standard computer monitor (or TV screen) is based on the cathode ray tube (CRT).
Essentially, a beam of electrons is generated, and scanned across the inner surface of a glass
tube. The inner surface of the tube is coated with a phosphor which emits light when electrons
strike it. The intensity of the emitted light from a point on the phosphor depends on the number
of electrons striking the phosphor.
The electron beam is scanned repeatedly over the phosphor surface, with the intensity of the
beam modulated to produce the required dark and light spots. If the scanning rate is fast enough,
the screen produces a steady image.
(Television images are redrawn 30 times per second; high quality monitors are refreshed 60
times per second, or more.)
Different phosphor materials emit different colors, so it is possible to construct a color display.
Modern CRT devices use a triad of colored phosphors — red, green, and blue — to produce
quite acceptable color output.
Usually, an electron gun is used for each of the primary colors, and a perforated grid called a
shadow mask is used to isolate the electron beam to a single phosphor “dot”.
The quality of a color CRT display depends on the number of triads on the screen. There are a
number of measures of this “quality” — the number of lines (rows of dots) and the “dot pitch”
(distance between dots) being commonly quoted.
Presently, good monitors can exceed 1200 lines, and can have more than 1600 triads per line.
The dot pitch can be less than 0.25 mm. (Regular television has 480 lines x 640 triads per line,
and is “interlaced” — every second line is redrawn each 1/60th of a second, for a full refresh rate
of 1/30th of a second.)
A “standard” 17 inch monitor (16 inches viewable) can have specifications as follows:
0.25 mm dot pitch
Refresh rate 48–120 Hz
1024 x 768 resolutions at 65 Hz
1600 x 1200 resolutions at 65 Hz
A high end monitor (24 inch) can have a dot pitch of 0.22 mm, and a resolution of 2048 x 1536
at > 60Hz.

Monochrome display

A display where the picture consists solely of a single color (with variations of shade in some
models: see gray-scale). Monochrome displays may have white, amber, or green screens. The
choice of screen color depends on users' preferences, with strong claims being made by the
advocates of each color. Monochrome displays are found in terminals and monitors using CRT
or LCD technology. In display technology, much higher resolution can be achieved by
monochrome than is possible in color displays and for a given performance monochrome
displays cost much less than a similar color product.