Metaphor is a figure of speech use to give

meaning in a symbolic manner. Meaning is transferred

from one object to another on the basis perceived
similarities.
✓Learning is the sea. A learner is a ship. Because
knowledge is boundless like the sea and a
learner is a ship sailing in the sea.
✓Learning is farming and a learner is a farmer.
Because the harvest, as well as the study is
based on effort.
✓Learning is music and a learner is a composer.
The reason is that learning looks easy, but
when one digs into it, there is a huge world.
✓Learning is an exploration, a learner is an
explorer, because as a learner, there is always
something new waiting for you, every learner should
be an explorer to prepare well and to learn new
things.
✓Learner is a buds, which will grow up extremely
fast if you give it enough sunshine and water.
Sensory Learning - Involves
understanding the external world through
senses and muscles.
Cognitive Learning - Concerned with the
developement of ideas and concepts and
situation in which the learner attempts to
associate work with their meaning or form
association between symbols.
Affective Learning - Involves feelings
and emotions, assimilation of values,
mental understanding, pleasure and
satisfaction.
 The term “behaviorist” was coined by John B.
Watson (1913). He insisted that the theory, the focus
should be on the mesurable and observable behaviors.
Bahaviorism is a school of thought of
psychology based on the assumption that learning
occurs through interactions with the environment.

The principles of the behaviorist theory largely

came from Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and Burrhus
F. Skinner.
 One of the best-known
aspects of the behavioral learning
theory is classical conditioing.
Discovered by the Russian
Psychologist Ivan Pavlov, classical
conditioning is a learning process
that occurs through associations
between an environmental stimulus
and naturally occuring stimulus.
 Classical conditioning is where the behavior
becomes a reflex response to an antecedents stimulus.
This was notice by Pavlov when he saw that a dog came
to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or
with the ringing of a bell by salivation even when there
is no sight or smell of food.
Classical conditioning regard this form of
learning to be the same whether in dogs or in humans.
In the school, the learner is sometimes conditioned to
associate particular object with the teacher. So when
they encounter the object, they are also reminded of
the teacher.
 In order to understand more about classical
conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with
the basic principles of the process.

The Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – This is

unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a
response. For example, when you smell one of your
favorite foods, you may immidiately feel very hungry.

The Unconditioned Response (UR) – This is

unlearned response that occurs naturally in response
to the unconditioned stimulus.
The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Previously
neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with
the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to
trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example,
suppose that when you smelled your favorite food,
you also heard the sound of a whistle. While whistle is
unrelated to the smell of food, if the sound of the
whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the
sound would eventually trigger the conditioned
response.
The Conditioned Response (CR) – This is learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus.

In Ivan Pavlov’s experiment using the dog and

the bell to make the dog salivate, he also had the
following findings:
Stimulus Generalization - Once the dog learned to
salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at the
other similar sounds.
Extinction – If you stop pairing the bell with the
food, salivation will eventually stop in response to the
bell.
Sponteneous Recovery – Re-emergence of a
response that have been previously conditioned.
Discrimination – The dog could learn to discriminate
between similar bells and discern which bell would
result in the presentation of food and which would
not.
Higher-Order Conditioning – Once the dog has
been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may
be flashed at the same time that the bell rings.
 Operant conditioning is a
method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments of
behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to
refer to any “active behavior that
operates upon the environment to
generate consequence” (1953).
 Reinforcement – is any event that strengths or
increases the behavior it follows. The goal of this is to
incresed desired behaviors.
✓Positive Reinforcement – Any stimulus that are
given or added to increase the response. For example
when mother promises a vacation trip for her kids if
they get good grades at the end of the semester.
✓Negative Reinforcement – Any stimulus that
results in the increased frequency of a response when
it is withdrawn or remove. A negative reinforce is not a
punishment but a reward.
 Punishment – is a consequence intended to result
in reduced responses. The goal is to decrease
undesirable behaviors.
✓Positive Punishment – Sometimes referred to as
punishment by application, it involves the presentation
of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows.
✓Negative Punishment – Also known as
punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
 Edward Lee Thorndike (1898)
formulated the theory of
connectionism also called stimulus-
response theory. The learning theory
of thorndike represents the original S-
R framework of behaviorist
psychology. Learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli
and responses. Such association or
“habits” become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and
requency of the S-R pairing.
 Thorndike expresses the principles of
connectionism in the following of learning:
✓Law of Effect – When a connection between the
stimulus and response is made and is followed by a
satisfying experience the connection is strengthened.
If the connection is followed by an annoying result,
the connection is weakened.
Implies that, a person tends to repeat life
experiences that has been satisfying, and tends to
avoid what has been dissatisfying.
✓Law of Readiness – States that when a person is
prepared to respond or act, giving the respond is
satisfying, and being prevented from doing is
annoying.
Reminds that a learner must not be forced
beyond the present level of readiness to avoid
acquiring some undesirable attitudes that might affect
learning capabilities.
Implies that teacher must either wait or accept
the present level of readiness of the learner, but
should apply motivational learning activities.
✓Law of Exercise – Law of exercise means that drill
or practice helps in increasing efficacy and durability of
learning. According to Thorndike’s S-R bond theory,
the connections are strengthened with trial or practice
and the connection are weakened when trial or
practice is discontinued. Repetition or practice is
valuable in learning.
✓Law of Use
✓Law of Disuse
 According to Albert Bandura
(1977), people learn through
observing others’ behavior, attitude
and the outcomes of these
behaviors. He believes that most of
human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling;
from observing others, one forces
an idea of how new behavior
performed.
➢ People can learn through observation
In his famous “Bobo doll” studies, Bandura
demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors
they have observed in other people. The children in
Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently
toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they
began to imitate the agressive actions they had
previously observed.
 Bandura identified three basic models of
observational learning:
✓ Live Model – Which involves an actual individual
demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
✓ Verbal Instructional Model – Which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
✓ Symbolic Model – Which involves real of fictional
characters displaying behaviors in books, movies,
television programs, or online media
➢ Mental States are Very Important to Learning
Bandura noted that external, environmental
reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. He described intrinsic
reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as
pride, satisfuction and a sense of accomplishment.
➢ Learning does not Necessarily Lead to a
Change in Behavior
While behaviorist believe that learning leads to
permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information
without demonstrating new behavior.
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