CHAPTER 2

Resistor Sizing and Charts, Capacitor

Sizing, Cable Sizing and Management

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 RESISTORS
• Resistors are electrical devices that act to reduce current flow
and at the same time act to lower voltage levels within circuits.

• Their make up include: Mica, Glass, Rubber, Wood

• The unit of resistance is OHM (Ω) where 1Ω = 1V/1A

• The relationship between the voltage applied across a resistor

and the current through it is given by V = IR.

2
APPLICATIONS FOR RESISTORS

• Set operating current and signal levels

• Provide voltage reduction
• Set precise gain values in precision circuits
• Act as shunts in ammeters and voltage meters
• Behave as damping agents in oscillators
• Act as bus and line terminators in digital circuits
• Provide feedback networks for amplifiers.

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APPLICATIONS FOR RESISTORS
• Potential dividers. Two or more resistors in series will give a
voltage at their junction point proportional to the ratio of their
values. This functionality is widely used in circuits for generating
intermediate voltages
• Biasing resistors. Transistors and many other devices need to have
their AC and DC operating characteristics and gain values set up for
correct operation. This is done with multiple resistors and is often
called biasing
• Op-amp gain and feedback. Most op-amp circuits need to have
their gain and feedback functionality set by resistors external to the
amplifier chip; resistors are the primary means of doing this
• Current limiting. Resistors can be used to limit the amount of
current that flows in a circuit element. This is a useful safety function
in many circuits e.g. limiting the current that can flow into an LED to
manage its brightness
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• Impedance matching. To maximise power transmission at
high frequencies the impedance of the receive and transmit
ends of a circuit need to be the same. Resistors can perform at
least part of this requirement
• Current measuring. Many circuits need to know how much
current is flowing, however, it is much easier to measure
voltage, so inserting a resistor into the circuit to ‘develop’ a
voltage – remember Ohm's law- is a common technique for
measuring current
• Data and address bus pullups. This functionality helps to
reduce noise issues on high-speed computer busses. When a
data bus tri-states or is driven high, it is often necessary to pull
it into a known state or to make sure its output high is well
above the switching point of other logic elements on the bus,
and a pull up helps to do this
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TYPES OF RESISTORS

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Fig. 1 Types of Resistors
Fixed resistors
• These resistors has a specific value and cannot be changed.

Variable Resistors
• These resistors’ values can be changed through a dial, knob,
and screw or manually by a proper method

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Types of Fixed and Variable Resistors
Table 1 Types of Resistors
SN Fixed Resistors Variable Resistors
1. Carbon Composition Potentiometers
2. Carbon Film
3. Wire Wound Rheostats
4. Thin Film: i. Carbon film Trimmers
ii. Metal film

5. Thick Film i. Metal oxide

ii. Cermet film

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 Carbon Film
• This is one of the most popular resistors used today.
• It is made by depositing a carbon film onto a small ceramic cylinder.
• A small spiral groove cut into the film controls the amount of carbon
between the leads, hence setting the resistance.
• Such resistors show excellent reliability, excellent solderability, noise
stability, moisture stability, and heat stability.
• Typical power ratings range from 1⁄4 to 2 W.
• Resistances range from about 10 Ω to 1 MΩ, with tolerances around 5
percent.

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Fig. 2 Carbon Film Resistor
 Carbon Composition
• This is another very popular resistor made from a mixture of
carbon powder and glue like binder.
• To increase the resistance, less carbon is added.
• These resistors show predictable performance, low inductance,
and low capacitance.
• Power ratings range from about 1⁄8 to 2 W. Resistances range
from 1 Ω to about 100 MΩ, with tolerances around 5 percent

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Fig. 3 Carbon Composition Resistor
 Wire Wound
• These types of resistors are designed generally for high-power
applications. They are made by winding wire with a higher-
than-normal resistance wire on a former.
• Wire wound resistors are suited to high powers and exhibit a
high level of reliability at high powers

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Fig. 4 Wire Wound Resistors
 Thin film: Metal film
• The metal film resistors are very similar to metal oxide film
resistors.
• They look alike visually and in performance, they are quite
comparable. A metal film is deposited on a ceramic rod instead
of a metal oxide film.
• Metals such as nickel alloy may also be used.
•

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Fig. 5 Thin Film: Metal Film Resistors
 Thick film: Metal Oxide film
• These types of resistors are currently the widely used form of a
resistor.
• Instead of a carbon film, a metal oxide film is deposited on a ceramic
rod. The film is protected by using a conformal epoxy coating, and it
has a temperature coefficient of around + or – 15 parts per million per
degree Celsius.
• This makes it superior in performance to that of any carbon-based
resistor.
• Metal oxide film resistors can be supplied to a much closer tolerance,
5% or 2% being standard, 1% are also available. Much lower noise is
also produced than carbon resistors.

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Fig. 6 Thick Film: Metal Oxide Film Resistor
 Cermet Film Resistor
• In the cermet oxide resistors, the internal area contains on ceramic
insulation materials.
• And then a carbon or metal alloy film or layer wrapped around the resistor
and then fix it in a ceramic metal (which is known as Cermet).
• They are made in the square or rectangular shape and leads and pins are
under the resistors for easy installation in printed circuit boards.
• They provide a stable operation in high temperature because their values do
not change with change in temperature.

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 Potentiometers
• Potentiometer is a three terminal device which is used for
controlling the level of voltage in the circuit.
• The resistance between two external terminals is constant while
the third terminal is connected with moving contact (Wiper)
which is variable. The value of resistance can be changed by
rotating the wiper which is connected to the control shaft

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 Rheostats
• Rheostats are a two or three terminal device which is used for
the current limiting purpose by hand or manual operation.
• Rheostats are also known as tapped resistors or variable wire
wound resistors

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 Trimmers
• There is an additional screw with Potentiometer or variable
resistors for better efficiency and operation and they are
known as Trimmers.
• The value of resistance can be changed by changing the
position of screw to rotate by a small screwdriver.

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Fig. 7 Trimmer
 Non linear Resistors
Resistors are those resistors, where the current flowing through it
does not change according to Ohm’s Law but, changes with
change in temperature or applied voltage.
Examples include:

• Thermistors
• Varisters
• Photo resistor

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 Thermistors
• Thermistors is a type of variable resistor which notices the
change in temperature.
• Thermistors are made from the cobalt, Nickel, Strontium and
the metal oxides of Manganese.
• The Resistance of a Thermistor is inversely proportional to the
temperature, i.e. resistance increases when temperature
decrease and vice versa.

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 Varisters
• Varisters are voltage dependent Resistors (VDR) which is used
to eliminate the high voltage transients.
• In other words, a special type of variable resistors used to
protect circuits from destructive voltage spikes is called varisters

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 Varisters
• Varistors are commonly used to safeguard sensitive electronic devices
and equipment by diverting excess voltage away from them.

• Varistors are frequently employed in parallel with the devices or

circuits they are designed to safeguard.

• When there is a voltage spike, the varistor effectively "clamps" the

voltage at a safe level, keeping it from reaching the protected
components.

• The varistor recovers to its high-resistance state after the surge has
passed.
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 Resistor Chart/Labels
• Leaded resistors are marked in one of two ways:
• with a set of four or five color bands, indicating resistance and
tolerance; or
• with a 4-digit resistance code, followed by a letter that indicates
the tolerance. Surface-mount resistors use either (a) a 3- or 4-digit
resistance code, or, for the smallest package sizes, (b) no marking
at all

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Fig. 8 Bands of Resistors
• Resistors use either a series of painted bands or written labels
to specify resistance values.

• Other things that may be on the label include tolerances (the

percentage uncertainty between the labeled resistance and the
actual resistance), a temperature coefficient rating (not
common), and a reliability level rating (reliability that the
resistor will maintain its tolerance over a 1000-hour cycle)

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25
The Three and Four Digit Systems Surface Mounted Device Resistors
• In these systems, the first two or three digits indicate the numerical
resistance value of the resistor, and the last digit gives a multiplier.

• The number of the last digit indicates the power of ten by which to
multiply the given resistor value. Here are some examples of values under
this system.

Three Digit System Example:

• 450 = 45 Ω x 100 is 45 Ω
• 273 = 27 Ω x 103 is 27,000 Ω (27 kΩ)

Four Digit System Example

• 7992 = 799 Ω x 102 is 79,900 Ω (79.9 kΩ)
•26 1733 = 173 Ω x 103 is 173,000 Ω (173 kΩ)
 Surface Mounted Device Resistors
• The letter "R" is used to indicate the position of a decimal point for
resistance values lower than 10 Ω.
• Thus, 0R5 would be 0.5 Ω and 0R01 would be 0.01 Ω.

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 Surface Mounted Device Resistors
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) System (EIA-96)

• Higher precision resistors, combined with the decreasing sizes of resistors,

have created the need to have a new, more compact marking for SMD
resistors.

• It is aimed at resistors with 1% tolerance.

• In this system, the marking exists out of three digits: 2 numbers to indicate
the resistor value and 1 letter for the multiplier.

• The two first numbers represent a code that indicates a resistance value with
three significant digits.
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 Surface Mounted Device Resistors
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) System (EIA-96)
Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value Code Value
01 100 17 147 33 215 49 316 65 464 81 681
02 102 18 150 34 221 50 324 66 475 82 698
03 105 19 154 35 226 51 332 67 487 83 715
04 107 20 158 36 232 52 340 68 499 84 732
05 110 21 162 37 237 53 348 69 511 85 750
06 113 22 165 38 243 54 357 70 523 86 768
07 115 23 169 39 249 55 365 71 536 87 787
08 118 24 174 40 255 56 374 72 549 88 806
09 121 25 178 41 261 57 383 73 562 89 825
10 124 26 182 42 267 58 392 74 576 90 845
11 127 27 187 43 274 59 402 75 590 91 866
12 130 28 191 44 280 60 412 76 604 92 887
13 133 28 196 45 287 61 422 77 619 93 909
14 137 30 200 46 294 62 432 78 634 94 931
15 140 31 205 47 301 63 442 79 649 95 953
2916 143 32 210 48 309 64 453 80 665 96 976
 Surface Mounted Device Resistors
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) System (EIA-96)

Multiplication Examples
Code
Factor

Z 0.001 • 01A ⇒ Code 01 = 100 with Multiplier A = 1

Y/R 0.01 ⇒ 100 x 1 = 100 Ω ±1%
X/S 0.1
A 1
B/H 10
• 38C ⇒ Code 38 = 243 with Multiplier C = 100
C 100 ⇒ 243 x 100 = 24,300 Ω ±1%
D 1000
E 10,000 • 92Z ⇒ Code 92 = 887 with Multiplier Z = 0.001
F 100,000
⇒ 887 x 0.001 = 0.887 Ω ±1%

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31
CAPACITORS

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 CAPACITORS
• A capacitor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that
stores charge in an electric field between its metal plates.
• It is made up of two metal plates (electrodes) separated by an
insulator known as the dielectric.
Capacitance
• The capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store charge in its
metal plates (Electrodes).
• Its unit is Farad F.
• One Farad is the amount of capacitance when a charge of one-
coulomb causes the potential difference of one volt across its
terminals. The capacitance is always positive, it cannot be negative

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 Applications of Capacitors
• Power factor correction
• Suppression and coupling: Capacitors used for suppressing
undesirable frequencies are sometimes called filter capacitors
• Smoothing power supply’s output
• Frequency filters, high pass, low pass filters
• Coupling and Decoupling of signals
• Motor Starter
• Snubber (Surge absorber & Noise filter)
• Oscillators
• Energy Storage
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Symbols of Capacitor

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Types of Capacitors

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Fig. 9 Types of Capacitors
 Classification of Capacitors
• The two main types of capacitors are fixed capacitors and variable
capacitors
• Fixed capacitors:
• A fixed capacitor is one that holds a specific quantity of electric charge
(capacitance) that cannot be adjusted at any time.
• Their values are generally established during the production process. In
electric appliances or gadgets, a fixed capacitor aids in maintaining a
steady charge and energy output.

Types of fixed capacitors

Polar Capacitors
Non-polar Capacitors
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Polar Capacitors:
• Polar capacitors or polarized capacitors are such type of a
capacitor whose terminals (electrodes) have polarity; positive
and negative.
• The positive terminal should be connected to positive of supply
and negative to negative.
• Reversing the polarity will destroy the capacitor.
• These type of capacitors are only used in DC applications.

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Examples of Polarized Capacitor 39
Non-Polar capacitors:
• Non-polar or non-polarized capacitors are such types of capacitors
whose terminals have no fixed polarity.
• They can be used either way in a circuit.
• Due to its non-polarized terminals, they are used in DC circuits as
well as AC circuits.
• They are cheaper than Polar capacitor but they have low
capacitance and high range of voltage ratings from a few volts to
thousands of volts.
• Non-polar capacitor are classified into three types
Ceramic Capacitor
Mica Capacitor
Film Capacitor
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 41
Fig. Examples of Non polarised Capacitor
Ceramic Capacitor
• As the name suggests the ceramic capacitor is a type of non-polar
capacitor in which the dielectric used is a ceramic material.
• It is made of two layers of metal (usually nickel and copper) with
ceramic (Para electric or Ferroelectric) as the dielectric. These
alternating layers are stacked together to provide high capacitance
value.

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43
Mica Capacitor
• Mica capacitor as its name suggests is a non-polar capacitor
that uses mica (chemically inert and stable material) as the
dielectric.
• There are two type of mica capacitor
Clamped Mica Capacitor
Silver Mica Capacitor

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45
Film Capacitor

• Film capacitor, also known as Polymer film capacitor or plastic

film capacitor is a type of non-polar capacitor which uses a film
of usually plastic and sometimes paper as a dielectric.
• Its construction has two types or formats of configuration
Metalized Capacitor
Film/Foil Capacitor

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47
• Variable capacitors :
• Variable capacitors, as opposed to normally fixed capacitors,
are designed to allow for fluctuating capacitance values.
• In most situations, variable capacitance is achieved by
changing the distance between parallel plates in a capacitor
or adjusting the cross-sectional area where the plates face
one another.
• Variable capacitors are often used in L/C circuits to set the
resonance frequency, for example: to tune a radio

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These variable capacitors are divided into two
main types based on its operating mechanism
Mechanically Controlled
These variable capacitors capacitance value can be changed mechanically
through a knob or a screwdriver

Electrically Controlled
Such type of variable capacitor is made of P-N junction semiconductor
device whose junction capacitance is controlled using the reverse voltage.

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50
 Capacitor Codes: Capacitor Markings and
Tolerance Code Chart
• Capacitance: The amount of charge that the capacitor can
store.
• Breakdown Voltage: The point at which the capacitor short
circuits and can no longer hold a charge.
• Tolerance: The expected variations around the given
capacitance – in other words, how close the real capacitance
will stay to the designated capacitance.
• Polarization: By design, some capacitors can accept voltage in
only one polarity (otherwise you risk destroying the device). In
polarized capacitors, therefore, it is important to know which
lead is positive and which is negative.
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Component manufacturers indicate tolerance with a letter code that refers to
variances.

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100 µf = 0.0001 F
50 V = breakdown voltage
the white stripe indicates the negative leg of this capacitor, which is
generally also the shorter leg.

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• The top “683” marking
indicates the capacitance
value, which is 68,000
picofarads (pF).

• To get this value, you

multiply the leading digits
(68 in this case) by 10
raised to the power of the
last digit (3), and the
result is the capacitance
in picofarads (in this case,
we get 68x103 pF)

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• There are three exceptions
for the last digit: 7 is not
used, 8 means to multiply
the leading digits by 0.01,
and 9 means to multiply the
leading digits by 0.1.
• The dielectric breakdown
voltage of this capacitor is
written underneath the
capacitance as “100V,”
meaning it breaks down at
100 volts.
• There is no negative
indicator, as this capacitor
doesn’t have a dedicated
polarity and can be installed
either way
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56
CABLES

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 Wire

• A wire is a flexible metallic conductor, especially one made of copper,

usually insulated, and used to carry electric current in a circuit

• Most electrical wires are made from copper or aluminium and

typically are protected by an insulating coating of plastic, rubber, or
lacquer.

• Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms.

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Solid core
• This wire is useful for wiring breadboards; the solid- core
ends slip easily into breadboard sockets and will not fray in
the process. These wires have the tendency to snap after a
number of flexes.

Solid Core Cable

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 Stranded wire
• The main conductor is comprised of a number of individual
strands of copper. Stranded wire tends to be a better conductor
than solid- core wire because the individual wires together
comprise a greater surface area. Stranded wire will not break
easily when flexed.

Stranded Wire Cable 60

Braided wire
• A braided wire is made up of a number of
individual strands of wire braided together.
Like stranded wires, these wires are better
conductors than solid- core wires, and they
will not break easily when flexed.
• Braided wires are frequently used as an
electromagnetic shield in noise reduction
cables and also may act as a wire conductor
within the cable(e.g., coaxial cable)

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Cables and Connectors
Cable
• Cables consist of a number of individually insulated wires bound
together to form a multi conductor transmission line.
• A cable consists of a multiple number of independent conductive wires.
we are concerned only with cables used in low-voltage systems (50–
1000V)

Connectors
• They are plugs, jacks, adapters and are used as mating fasteners to
join wires and cable with other electrical devices.
• They are a list of common plug and jack combinations used to fasten
wires and cables to electrical devices.

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A cable comprises two parts: the conductor or conductors and
the sheathing and insulation.

• Conductors
A conductor may be defined as
the conducting portion of a
cable, which consists of a single
wire or group of wires in contact
with each other. Common
conducting materials include
silver, copper, gold, aluminium,
tungsten.

• Sheathing and insulation

Rubber, lead, cotton, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).
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Types of Cables

64
 Type of cable Purpose
Non-metallic sheathed These types of cables contain flexible plastic jackets including 2 to 4 wires and
also a bare wire used for grounding. These electrical cables are used in outdoor
or underground applications.

Underground Feeder These cables are available in different gauge sizes and are used in in-ground
Cable and outdoor lighting applications. These cables are ideal for damp areas such as
pumps, gardens, air lamps because of their high water resistance

Metallic Sheathed These cables include three copper wires where one wire is used for the current,
Cable the second one is a grounding wire & the third one is the neutral wire.
frequently used for high-stress installations & outside applications

Twin-Lead Cable These cables are smooth two-wire cables, used for transmission in between an
antenna and receiver such as a TV and radio.
Paired Cable The paired cable includes two conductors which are insulated individually. These
cables are used in low-frequency AC or DC applications

Coaxial Cable This cable uses an external sheath for additional insulation. These cables carry
TV signals and connect video equipment.
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Forms of Cable

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 Forms of Cable
Single Core Cable
• Single core cables are having only one core conductor itself typically copper or
aluminium, with insulation around it. It is big sized and that would be Phase, Neutral
or Earth. Single core conductor is only used in the high tension voltage system.
Two Core Cable
• Manufactured by dual core conductor is called two core cables and that would be only
Phase and Neutral. It is used in the low tension line.
Tri Core Cable
• Three core cables are having triple cores and it would be three phases of red, yellow
and blue. Tri core conductors are used in the 415 V – low voltage system.
Three and Half Core
• The type of electrical cables having itself four cores but last one core would be half
sizer than others. Red, Yellow and Blue of three phases are used to have first three
cores. Last half size core used as neutral. Three and half core is mostly used in the
low voltage system.
Four Core Cables
• 3 Phases and neutral having conductor of the four core cables are would be made by
four cores. It is used in the low voltage system.
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Forms of Cable

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 Color coding
According to International Electrical Wiring Color Codes
For DC Circuits,
• Phase 1 - Brown
• Phase 2 - Black Red – wires for positive current
• Phase 3 - Grey Black – wires for negative current
Grey or white – ground wires
• Neutral - Blue
• Ground - Green with Yellow Stripe

Brown – line
Blue – neutral
Green and yellow – earth

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4 ways to get the cable size

• The label on the package

• Printing on the cable
• Visual inspection
• Measure the diameter and calculate the size

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Cable sizing
• Current carrying capacity
• Voltage regulation
• Short circuit rating

Current carrying capacity

• The current carrying rating is determined by the conductor size
and the thermal heating of the cable. The cable spacing,
application and insulation materials are relevant to the
dissipation of this heat.
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Voltage regulation
• Voltage regulation is not usually a problem with well-designed
electrical power systems but the voltage drop incurred with
excessively long cable runs needs to be accounted for.

Short circuit rating

• Short circuit ratings are based on the maximum current
withstand capability of the cable in a short circuit condition. The
cable should be capable of withstanding this current without
thermal damage until the fault condition can be switched to
safety through a device like a circuit breaker of fuse

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The Significance of Cable Sizing
• Electrical Safety: Proper cable sizing ensures the safety of
electrical installations by preventing excessive current flow, which
can lead to overheating, insulation breakdown, and fire hazards.
Correctly sized cables help maintain safe operating conditions and
minimize the risk of electrical accidents.
• Preventing Voltage Drop: Cable sizing is essential for
minimizing voltage drop in power distribution systems. Voltage
drop occurs when the electrical resistance of a cable causes a
decrease in voltage along its length. By appropriately sizing
cables, voltage drop can be controlled, ensuring that electrical
devices and equipment receive the required voltage for efficient
operation.
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• Energy Efficiency: Using properly sized cables reduces
energy losses and improves overall system efficiency.
Undersized cables can result in higher resistance, increased
power dissipation, and wasted energy. By selecting cables with
the appropriate size and capacity, energy efficiency can be
maximized, leading to cost savings and reduced environmental
impact.

• Equipment Performance: Different electrical equipment and

machinery have specific current and voltage requirements.
Correct cable sizing ensures that the electrical supply to these
devices is adequate for optimal performance. Undersized cables
can cause voltage fluctuations, equipment malfunctions, and
reduced productivity. Proper cable sizing supports reliable and
efficient operation of industrial machinery and equipment
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• Compliance with Standards and Regulations: Cable sizing
is an integral part of meeting industry standards and electrical
regulations. National and international standards, such as the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards,
specify cable sizing guidelines to ensure electrical system safety
and performance.
• Future Expansion and Load Growth: Cable sizing should
take into account future expansion plans and potential load
growth. By considering future requirements, such as additional
equipment or increased power demand, proper cable sizing
allows for scalability and avoids the need for costly cable
replacements or upgrades in the future
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Wiring Systems
1. Surface Wiring: PVC insulated and sheathed cables are run
along the walls of buildings. The cables are normally fastened on
to the wall by aluminium or rubber studs, which are secure, firmly
by nails.

2. Conduit Wiring: Conduits are essential pipes, through which

PVC insulated cables can be run. They can be made from steel or
plastic.

76
Wiring Systems

Surface Wiring 77
Wiring Systems

Surface Conduit Wiring 78

Wiring Systems

Concealed Conduit Wiring 79

CABLE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
A cable management system is simply a system of supporting
cables.
The most common are:
• Conduit
• Trunking
• Ducting
• Tray
• Ladder
• Basket
• Modular
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Conduit
• A conduit is a tube or pipe in which conductors are run. In
effect, the conduit replaces the PVC sheathing of a cable,
providing mechanical protection for the insulated conductors.
• There are three types of conduits: metal, flexible (metal) and
non-metallic (PVC)

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Trunking

• Trunking may be thought of simply as a larger and more

accessible conduit system.
• It is available in two ranges: ordinary wiring trunking and bus-
bar trunking.

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Ducting
• It is usually used where many large cables need to be
accommodated. Ducts may be earthenware or plastic pipes for
use underground or channels in the floor or hollow spaces
within a buildings fabric
• Examples include: ladder, wire basket

Ladder Wire Basket

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Tray
• It is simply a perforated metal tray on to which cables can be
tied.
• Its use is restricted normally to situations such as switch rooms,
boiler houses and large cable ducts

84
Modular
• This is a pre-fabricated system used in commercial and
industrial installations.
• It comprises distribution boards, special connection units, outlet
boxes and pre-set flexible cable lengths that have plugs on each
end

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