Introduction

In this laboratory experiment, emphasis is placed on the detailed study of electrical currents as they
oscillate within Alternating Current (AC) circuits, employing an oscilloscope as a pivotal tool for visual
analysis. The oscilloscope, functioning akin to a sophisticated observational device, allows for the real-
time monitoring and examination of how electrical currents vary with time. Complementing the
oscilloscope, a function generator is utilized to produce varying electrical waveforms, facilitating the
study of different circuit behaviors. Additionally, a digital multimeter is employed for the accurate
measurement of electrical parameters, enhancing the precision of the experiment. Key electrical
components, including resistors, capacitors, and an inductor, are integrated into the circuitry to explore
a variety of AC circuit configurations. The primary aim of this experiment is to furnish students with
hands-on experience in manipulating AC circuits, focusing on the meticulous measurement and analysis
of circuit behaviors. This approach not only solidifies theoretical knowledge but also sharpens practical
skills in electrical engineering, providing a comprehensive understanding of AC circuit dynamics and the
instrumental role of oscilloscopes in electrical measurement and diagnostics.

Procedure

The experiment is broken down into seven parts, each focusing on different aspects of AC circuits:

 Measuring Frequency: The function generator is utilized to generate a waveform, the repetition
rate of which, within a second, indicates its frequency. By analyzing the period of the waveform
via the oscilloscope — the duration of one complete cycle — the frequency is deduced.

1
f=
T
 In the voltage measurements and AC circuits analysis, the process begins by setting the function
generator's amplitude to half its maximum. This initial adjustment allows for the first
measurement of peak voltage using the oscilloscope, which is then recorded. Subsequently, the
amplitude is increased to its maximum to observe and record the peak voltage change. This step
is essential for understanding voltage variations in response to signal strength adjustments and
lays the groundwork for further exploration into AC circuit behavior, especially regarding
resonance and impedance changes with frequency and component interaction.
 In the RC circuit experiment focusing on a 4.4 microfarad capacitor and a 25-
ohm resistor, the setup involves connecting these components in series with
a function generator and linking the circuit to an oscilloscope through two
channels: one to measure the overall voltage across the RC circuit and the
other to assess the voltage across the resistor, indicative of the circuit
current. Observations of phase difference between the voltage and current
signals, which shift with oscillator frequency adjustments, validate the
circuit's configuration. Quantifying this phase difference requires determining
a scale factor based on the oscilloscope's display, then measuring the phase
angle in degrees. This phase angle, used to calculate the capacitor's
capacitance at various frequencies, reveals the component's actual
capacitance through comparison with the specified 4.4μF. The average
 calculated capacitance is then evaluated against the manufacturer's value to
gauge the experiment's precision and the capacitor's accuracy.
 RC Circuit Analysis: The experiment proceeds to assess circuits equipped with capacitors of
varying capacities to evaluate their reaction to distinct frequencies. This involves measuring the
phase angle between voltage and current waveforms to ascertain the capacitive characteristics
of the circuit.
 RL Circuit Analysis: This analysis parallels the RC circuit examination, albeit with a focus on
circuits incorporating an inductor. The investigation aims to understand how the inductor
modulates the voltage-current relationship across different frequencies.
 Finding Resonance in RLC Circuit: The procedure entails adjusting the circuit to achieve
resonance, the state wherein the circuit achieves peak operational efficiency. The resonant
frequency is identified and recorded, with observations made on how this frequency is
influenced by alterations in circuit components.
 Resonance of an RLC Circuit: This phase of the experiment is dedicated to exploring the
resonance phenomenon within an RLC circuit. Resonance is achieved when the inductive and
capacitive reactances negate each other, rendering the circuit's impedance purely resistive.
Under such conditions, the circuit is capable of oscillating at a specific frequency with minimal
energy dissipation, termed the resonant frequency.

Results and Analysis

In this experiment section, periods for signals at 100 Hz and 5000 Hz were recorded and their
frequencies calculated to assess the oscilloscope's accuracy. This comparison revealed the instrument's
precision, with minor discrepancies indicating potential for calibration errors or the challenges of
manual frequency measurement.

A. Frequency Measurements

function generator set to 100 Hz

Period Frequency
0.01 100

function generator set to 5000 Hz

Period Frequency
0.0002 5000

During voltage measurement observations, the experiment aimed to demonstrate the relationship
between function generator amplitude settings and the resulting voltage peaks. Findings confirmed a
proportional relationship, supporting the oscilloscope’s effectiveness in voltage measurement, though
nonlinear responses or saturation effects at maximum amplitudes were noted as potential
measurement distortions.

B. Voltage Measurements
 amplitude level set to half

Peak
Voltage
60

amplitude level set to maximum

Peak
Voltage
114

The study of AC circuits and resonance focused on series RLC circuits, particularly on resonance
phenomena, by measuring potential drops and analyzing phase relationships to determine circuit
impedance and resonance conditions. This revealed how impedance changes with frequency and
highlighted resonance, where the circuit behaves purely resistively, emphasizing the importance of
phase relationships in understanding AC circuit behavior.

Freq Resistance
C. RC Circuit: Determination of 4.4 µF Capacitor 1000 25

Frequency Degrees/Division φ (# of Divisions) φ (Degrees) Capacitance Frac Dif

1000 90 4 49.5 5.43725E-06 0.55
1500 135.8490566 2.65 38.03773585 5.42487E-06 0.28
2000 72 5 28.08 5.96643E-06 0.39
2500 90 4 24.3 5.63983E-06 0.27
3000 109.0909091 3.3 21.81818182 5.30066E-06 0.2

Average
Capacitance
5.55381E-06

D. RC Circuit: Determination of 1 µF Capacitor

 Degrees/ φ (# of
Frequency φ (Degrees) Capacitance
Division Divisions) Frac Dif
1000 92.30769231 3.9 78.46153846 1.29967E-06 0.85
1500 53.73134328 6.7 71.46268657 1.42314E-06 1.33
2000 72 5 64.8 1.49785E-06 0.9
2500 90 4 58.5 1.56048E-06 0.65
3000 109.0909091 3.3 57.81818182 1.3354E-06 0.53

Average
Capacitance
1.42331E-06

E. RL Circuit: Determination of a 1 milliHenry Inductor

8.2
Inductor Resistance

Rsum = RL + R = 33.2

Degrees/ φ (# of
Frequency φ (Degrees) Inductance
Division Divisions) Frac Dif
3000 107.4626866 3.35 24.17910448 0.000790794 0.225
3500 126.3157895 2.85 25.26315789 0.000712444 0.2
4000 144 2.5 28.8 0.000726218 0.2
4500 81.81818182 4.4 36.81818182 0.000879002 0.45
5000 90 4 40.5 0.000902583 0.45

Average
Inductance
0.000802208

F. Resonance of an RLC Circuit

R = 15 Ohms
Resonant Frequency + Frequency - Frequency
4708 4985 4515

Frequency Range: 470

R = 80 Ohms
Resonant Frequency + Frequency - Frequency
 4504 5171 4226

Frequency Range: 945

Calculated Resonant
Frequency
4710.066441

Overall, the experiment offered insights into AC circuit dynamics and the oscilloscope’s role in electrical
engineering, illustrating the inherent uncertainties in experimental physics and the need for precision in
measurement and equipment calibration.

Questions for Discussion

1. Capacitors which do not have a tolerance value listed (as in this experiment) may be as much as
20% off from the manufacturer’s stated value. How well do your values for the capacitors in parts C
and D compare to their stated value?

For part C, the stated value is 4.4μF, and the measured average capacitance is approximately 5.55μF.
This measured value exceeds the upper limit of the expected range (4.4μF + 20% = 5.28μF), indicating
the measured capacitance is higher than what the 20% tolerance would allow for the stated value.

For part D, the stated value is 1μF, and the measured average capacitance is approximately 1.423μF.
This also exceeds the upper tolerance limit (1μF + 20% = 1.2μF), showing the measured capacitance is
above the expected range given the manufacturer’s specifications and the 20% tolerance guideline.

2. The inductor in part E has a resistance that needed to be considered in the determination of its
inductance value. Re-calculate the inductances of the inductor ignoring the resistance of the inductor
and determine an average inductance. Comment on why it is necessary to consider the resistance of
the inductor. Make a table of your work similar to the following:

frequency Φ (degrees) Inductance

3000 Hz
3500 Hz
4000 Hz
4500 Hz
5000 Hz

The resistance of the inductor is critical to consider because it contributes to the

total impedance and affects the phase angle measurement. Ignoring it can lead to a
misestimating of the inductor's behavior, as real inductors are not ideal and have
inherent resistances that influence the circuit's response.

3. In part F you determined the resonant frequency experimentally for two different resistance values.
How do these frequencies compare to each other? How well does the calculated resonant frequency
compare to the two experimentally found frequencies?
According to the formula:

1
f=
2 π √ LC
This formula shows that the resonant frequency is independent of the resistance value in the circuit.
Therefore, changing the resistance while keeping L and C constant should not affect the resonant
frequency.

When comparing the calculated resonant frequency to the two experimentally found frequencies for
different resistance values, all three frequencies should theoretically align closely. Any discrepancies
between the calculated and experimental values could be attributed to several factors.

4. Using the phasor diagram (figure 5) describe what happens to the magnitude of the voltage across
the circuit as compared to the magnitude of the voltage across the resistor when the circuit is in
resonance and at higher and lower frequencies out of resonance.

At resonance, the voltage across the circuit is equal to the voltage across the resistor, as the inductive
and capacitive reactances cancel each other out. At frequencies lower than resonance, the voltage
across the circuit is higher than that across the resistor due to the dominance of the capacitive
reactance. At frequencies higher than resonance, it’s also higher due to the inductive reactance taking
over.