ALIKO DANGOTE UNIVERSITY OF

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, WUDIL

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
Department of Physics

LECTURE NOTE
ON
PHY 2301 (MODERN PHYSICS)

COMPILED
BY
IZUDDEEN MUHAMMAD

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 INTRODUCTION:

At the end of the 19th century, many scientists believed they had learned most of what
there was to know about physics. Newton‟s laws of motion and theory of universal
gravitation, Maxwell‟s theoretical work in unifying electricity and magnetism, the laws
of thermodynamics and kinetic theory, and the principles of optics were highly successful
in explaining a variety of phenomena. At the turn of the 20th century, however, a major
revolution shook the world of physics. In 1900,
Max Planck provided the basic ideas that led to the formulation of the quantum theory,
and in 1905, Albert Einstein formulated his special theory of relativity. The excitement of
the times is captured in Einstein‟s own words: “It was a marvelous time to be alive.”
Both theories were to have a profound effect on our understanding of nature. Within a
few decades, they inspired new developments in the fields of atomic physics, nuclear
physics, and condensed-matter physics.

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 RELATIVITY
Our everyday experiences and observations involve objects that move at speeds much
less than the speed of light. Newtonian mechanics was formulated by observing and
describing the motion of such objects, and this formalism is very successful in describing
a wide range of phenomena that occur at low speeds. Nonetheless, it fails to describe
properly the motion of objects whose speeds approach that of light. Newtonian
mechanics is contrary to modern experimental results (Modern Physics) and is clearly a
limited theory.

Relativity: is the study of how different observers measure the same event.
We have the following relativity theory:
1. Special Relativity
2. Galilean Relativity

1. Special relativity (Einstein relativity): is the theory that, in an inertial frame of

reference, the motion of an object is relative to the frame from which it is viewed
or measured

2. Galilean relativity (Newtonian relativity): this deals with Newtonian principle of

relativity or Galilean invariance.
 If Newton‟s laws are valid in one reference frame, then they are also valid in a
reference frame moving at uniform velocity relative to the first system „
 Thus this moving frame is also an inertial frame

Frame of reference: is a set of coordinate‟s axis that defines position of body.

We have two type of frame of reference
(i) Inertial frame (ii) non inertial frame

(i) Inertial frame of reference: Is a reference frame in which a body at rest remains
at rest and a body in motion moves at a constant speed in a straight line unless
acted on by an outside force. (Is a frame that obeys Newton‟s law of motion).
It‟s also called un-accelerated frame of reference.
(ii) Non inertial frame reference: is a reference frame that does not obey Newton‟s
law of motion. It‟s an accelerated frame.
In this course PHY 2301 (Modern Physics) we study particularly the special relativity
(Einstein relativity)
Events: Is what happens in space and at an instant of time. Event is specified by four (4)
coordinates, 3 positions and one (1) time. i.e

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 POSTULATE OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY
The special theory of relativity is called special because it is concerned only with inertial
frame of reference out of more general frame, inertial as well as non-inertial. The one
dealing with non-inertial is called General theory of relativity.
In1905 Albert Einstein published an article entitled “On the Electrodynamics of
moving bodies” in the journal Annals of physic” he gave two postulate of special
relativity.

1. All laws of physics are the same in all inertial of reference

2. The speed of light in vacuum is constant in all direction irrespective of the motion
of the source and observer.

Now, consider the diagram below:

Fig. 1.0
Let the origins of the two frames and coincides initially.
is at rest
is moving with constant velocity relative to S along positive direction of x-axis.
If the event at P be denoted in frame S and by in , then
Galilean Transformation is

When a man is inside a bus (S) and another at the roadside standing, both are inertial
frame of reference. The observer (setting inside the car) sees many things differently
from observer .

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Now, how can these different observers are shown to be equivalent and to result in same
physical law? This is why we have the idea of transformation.
Hence, transformation appropriates to Newtonian conception is called Galilean
Transformation.
Velocity transformation
From Galilean Transformation equations, differentiating equations (1-3) with respect to
time we‟ve

, in single velocity we‟ve

……………….2

………………….3

Which is Galilean velocity transformation, the scalar component

The equations above are the Galilean velocity transformation.

Differenting again we‟ve

It should be clear that Galilean transformation is not consistent with Einstein postulates
of special relativity, if light moves along the x-axis with in , the equations
implies that the speed in is
rather than (i.e the 2nd Einstein postulates)
Therefore, Galilean transformation (Classical transformation) must therefore be modified
to make them consistent with Einstein postulate.
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Now, we assume the relativistic transformation equations is same as Galilean except with
that constant multiplier
We assume

Where is constant that depends on and not the co-ordinates. The inverse
transformation must look the same except for the plus sign, therefore
and the inverse is
…………………………b

…………………………(ii)
Now, let us find what is the constant multiplier by considering light pulse start at origin
of at and two origins coincides at , the pulse also starts at origin at
.
Einstein postulate requires the equation for components of the wave front of light
pulse is
and

Substituting equation (1) and (2) in equation (i) and (ii) and eliminating we found
to be

√ ……………………………………………….. (A)

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Note that
And if
Now, since its Lorentz transformation equation, then as in Galilean
Transformations, we must find .
To find the time we use

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Substituting equation (1) into equation (2) we‟ve
[ ]

Solving for

* +

Substituting , equation (6) becomes

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Therefore, the Lorentz Transformation equations (LTE) of space and time are:

Similarly, for the inverse of LTE, they are:

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 √

Important features of the Lorentz Transformation equations:

1. Measurement of position and time depend upon the frame of reference of the
observer.
E.g if the event happens in frame of reference at rest and we are observing same
from a moving frame of reference then we use LTE and if the event happens in
frame of reference and observations are made from frame of reference at rest
then inverse LTE will be use or applied
That is

2. LTE reduces to GT when

Hence,

Examples:
1. A passenger in a train moving at passes a man standing on a station
platform at after , the train passes him the man on the platform
determines a birds flying along the track in the same direction as the train
away. What are the coordinates of the birds are as determine by the passenger.

2. As measured by O, a flash bulb goes off at

what are the co-ordinates of event as
determined by a second observer O‟ having relative to O at along
direction.

3. An event occurs at in frame S,

find the coordinates of this event in frame S‟ which is moving with velocity
with respect to the frame S along axis using Lorentz
transformation.

4. Show that space –time interval is invariant under Lorentz

transformation.
5. A girl measured by x a flash bulb goes off at
What are the coordinates of this event as

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 determined by the second observer moving relative to at

6. Observer O note that two events are separated in space and time by
How far must an observer be moving relative to O in order
that the events to be simultaneous to O.
TIME DILATION AND LENGTH CONTRACTION
1.0 Lorentz –Fitzgerald Transformation (Length Contraction):-
Lorentz –Fitzgerald Transformation, for the first time, proposed that the length of a
moving body (moving with ) measured with respect to an observer does not
remain constant but gets decreased due to its relative motion.
This decreased in length is in the direction of motion is called Length contraction
According to Lorentz –Fitzgerald „when a body moves with a velocity relative to
stationary observer , its measured length appears to be contacted in direction of its motion
by a factor √ , whereas its other dimension perpendicular to the direction of
motion remain constant.

Fig. 2 (length contraction)

To drive an expression for length contraction
Let us consider a frame of reference moving with uniform velocity relative to
stationary frame in the positive x- direction
Let a rigid rod of proper length be placed with its length parallel to the x-axis in
moving frame ( as in fig. 2 above ).
is the length of the rod measured by observer at rest with respect to the rod).

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 and are the x-coordinates of two ends points with respect to observer in frame.
The length of the rod as measured by an observer in moving frame at any instant is
given by

The length of the rod as measured by an observer in stationary frame at same instant is
given by

From Lorentz transformation equation for a given value of is

Substituting and √

We have

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Where ,
is the actual or proper length and is the length measured by observer in frame which
the rod is at rest.

We know that:

Equation (3) shows us that:

1. If the rod moves faster , it appears shorter ,

2. If then (it appears as a point to a stationary observer)
3. If (Newtonian mechanics, no change in length to Observer)
Hence, in relativity there is no absolute length
Thus, the measured length L of a moving rod along the direction of motion is contracted
by a factor from its proper length .
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Examples:
1. A train whose length is 150m when at rest has to pass through a tunnel of length
125m. The train is moving with uniform speed of towards the tunnel.
Find
(i) the length rod as measured by the observer
(ii) the length of the tunnel as measured by the observer

2. If a spaceship 100m long were to pass the earth travelling at . What would be
its apparent length assuming Lorentz contraction?
3. Find the percentage contraction in the length of a rod in frame of reference,
moving with velocity in direction parallel to its length.
4. A rocket ship is 50m long, when it‟s on flight its length appear to be 49.5m to an
observer on the ground. Determine the speed of the rocket.

5. A rod has length 100cm, when the rod is in satellite its velocity is one half of the
velocity of light relative to laboratory. What is the length of the rod as
determined by an observer (i) In the satellite
(ii) In the Laboratory

6. What will the length of a mater rod appear to be for person travelling parallel to
the length of the rod at a speed of relative to the rod.

7. How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an observer for its length to be
contracted to of its length at rest?
8. A spacecraft flies past a planet at a speed of . A scientist on the planet
measures the length of moving spacecraft to be 74m. The spacecraft later lands on
the planet and the same scientist measure the length now stationary space craft.
What value does he get?

2.0 Time Dilation

This means apparent retardation of the clock, measurement of time intervals are also
affected by relative motion.
A clock in stationary frame measures longer time intervals between two events occurring
in a moving frame of reference then does a clock moving frame.
To derive the Lorentz Transformations, we will again consider two inertial observers,
moving with respect to each other at a velocity v. This is illustrated in Figure 1. This

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time, we will refer to the coordinates of the train-bound observer with primed quantities.
We will assume that the two observers have
Synchronized their clocks so that , and at this point in time, the two origins
coincide.

Derivation of the relation:

Let consider initially that observer in frame and in frame are at rest with
respect to each other. They synchronize their respective clock and observe that the time
interval between any two events measured by their own clocks is the same (When both
and are at rest).
Let the clock.
Consider two system and moving with velocity relative to along positive -
axis
Let a clock be situated at in frame give signal at interval

Let the time measured by an observer in moving between same two events be
and
The interval observed by observer in frame will be

From Lorentz transformation equation for time

√
And for

√
Substituting in equation (2) we finally have as:

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  A moving clock tick slowly, time itself runs slow, a phenomenon known as time
dilation.
(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)
Equation (5) is the Time dilation equation
Were:

Proper time ( : is the time interval between two events which occur at the same
position recorded by a clock in the frame in which the events occurred.
Relativistic time : is the time interval between the same two events recorded by an
observer in a frame which is moving with respect to the clock
Equation (5) shows us that:

1. If the clock tick slower , it appears longer , hence

2. If then (the clock it appears to be completely stopped to an a
stationary observer)
3. If (Newtonian mechanics, time interval measured by
observer in moving clock is same as when the clock is at rest)

A clock in stationary frame appears to go slow to an observer in moving frame. This

phenomena is called Time Dilation.

A clock moving with a uniform velocity relative to an observer appears to him to go slow
by a factor√ , than at rest relative to him. This effect called time Dilation.

Examples:
1. An atom will decay in . What will be the decay time as measured by an
observer in the laboratory when the atom is moving with a speed of .

2. A beam of particle half-life travel in the laboaratory with speed of

times the speed of light. How much distance does the beam travel.

3. At what speed should a clock be moved so that it may appear to lose 1minute in
each hour
4. The mean life of a meson is . Calculate the mean life-time of a meson
moving velocity
5. A certain particle called meson has a life-time .

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 (a) What is the mean life-time when the particle is travelling with a speed

(b) How far does it go during one mean life?

(c) What distance would it travel without relativistic effect?

6. The period of a pendulum is measured to be 3s, in the rest frame of the pendulum.
What is the period of the pendulum when measured by an observer moving at
speed of with respect to the pendulum?

Assignment
1. Write a short note on Michelson and Morley Experiment

Velocity Addition Theorem (VAT):

The relativistic law of addition of velocity is quite different from the classical law of
addition of velocities. The VAT formula in relativity can be cabe achieved using LTE as;
Suppose a frame of reference is moving with velocity relative to a stationary frame
along positive axis.
Suppose a particle is also moving along the positive direction of axis.
If a particle moves through a distance in a time interval in frame , then the
velocity of particle as measured by the observer in stationary frame is given by

to an observer in frame , the same distance covered by the particle and time interval
taken will appear different.

If the distance covered by the particle and time interval taken in are
respectively, then the velocity of the particle moving in is given by:

From LTE

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 √
Therefore, differentiating equation (3) and (4) we‟ve

√
By using equation (5) and (6) in (2) and dividing by we get:

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Equation (7) is the VAT formula, we can also write it inverse form as

From equation (7) or (8) we consider the following points:

1. When , then , -
2. When are smaller then (reduced to classical
mechanics)

 Consistency of Einstein second postulate

We can easily show that the speed of light in vacuum is constant using VAT.
 Case 1
Now, if , that is if the moving particle be a photon, moving with velocity of
light in positive direction of -axis, then the velocity observed by an observer in frame
is given by:

Using in equation (1) we get:

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 Hence, ………………………..3
 Case 2
Similarly, if the velocity is observed from , we use

Using in equation (1) above we get:

Hence,

We can see that in each case (in irrespective of the motion direction) the speed of
light is constant as stated in the second postulate.
Hence, we conclude that the addition of velocity to the velocity of light, simply
reproduces the velocity of light.
It means that the velocity of light in vacuum is the maximum attainable velocity in nature
and no signal can travel faster than that of light in vacuum.

1. Two particles come toward each other with speed with respect to laboratory.
What is their relative speed?
2. A spaceship moving away from the earth with velocity , fires a rocket whose
velocity relative to the spaceship is . What is the velocity of the rocket as
observed from the earth when its:
(a) Away from the earth
(b) Towards the earth

3. Two photons approach each other. What is their relative velocity

4. An Okada man in ADUST campus moving with a speed of past a
stationary observer. If the rider tosses a ball in the forward direction with speed of
with respect to himself, what is the speed of the ball as observed by the
stationary observer?

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Variation of Mass with velocity

According to the theory of relativity, length and time are not absolute, varies with
velocity. This result contradict with classical mechanics according to which mass is
invariant (absolute or constant) and does not depend upon velocity.
But according to relativity, mass is not absolute varies with velocity. To show this, we
consider the diagram below:

Fig. 3 (mass variation)

To drive relationship:
Suppose an inertial frame is associated with moving mass, Let be moving with
velocity along positive - axis with another frame .
Consider two masses moving in opposite direction with velocities
relative to the origin in frame. Suppose they collide inelasticallay and
come to rest in frame when viewed from frame, will appear to be initially at rest
while will have some velocity before collision.
For frame after collision the two masses will attain common velocity ,
Now, to relate the velocity of in frame with its velocity in frame, we use the
VAT formula (which is the relates velocity formula in relativity)

Here,
Substituting in equation (1) we‟ve

Conservation of momentum holds in all inertial frame, therefore in frame we‟ve

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By substituting equation (4) in equation (2) and solving for we finally have:

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

But is at rest and is moving with (view point of frame)
Therefore, we can say

Hence equation (a) becomes

Equation (b) is the mass variation with velocity equation and it shows how mass
increases with velocity. And we can say:
The mass of a body moving at very high speed relative to an observer is larger
than its mass when it is at rest by a factor .
√

One of the major breakthroughs in special relativity is the variation of mass with velocity.
Also, from equation (b) we consider the following points:
1. If then (mass of a moving body appears to be rest mass)
2. If is small ( (reduce to classical, that is mass of a moving
body is same as rest mass)
3. If then which is impossible, no material body attain velocity
of light.

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Examples:
1. Calculate the velocity of a particle at which it‟s mass will be twice the rest mass.

2. On the surface of the earth, the mass of man is 100kg. when he is in a rocket
moving with a speed of relative to the earth what will be his mass as
observed by
(a) observer on earth
(b) Observer I his rocket
3. Determine the velocity of a particle at which it mass will be 5times the rest mass.

4. The rest mass of a proton is . At what speed its mass be double its
rest mass.
5. What is the length of a meter stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is
times its rest mass? The length of meter rule is one meter

6. How fast must an electron move in order that its mass equals the rest mass of the
proton?
7. Calculate the speed of a body at which its mass will become three times of its rest
mass.

Relativistic Momentum and Force

In special relativity, both momentum and energy are conserved, just as they are in classic
physics. The laws of conservation of momentum and energy are essential to analyzing the
high-speed collisions that take place in high-energy physics laboratories. However, the
classic equations for conserving momentum and energy are not adequate for the analysis
of high-speed collisions. Here, we present the relativistically correct form of these
conservation equations. The momentum of a particle moving with velocity is given by
equation (3) below:
In relativistic mechanics, the momentum of a particle is define in similar way as in
Classical mechanics.

But
√

Using (1) & (2)

√

Conservation is valid in special relativity just as in classical physics.

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In relativistic mechanics, Newton‟s second law the force acting on a particle cannot be
define as the product of mass and acceleration of a particle but as the rate of change of its
momentum.
Thus,

From equation (2) , , therefore,

√

√
{ }

{ }
√

{ ( ) }

{ ( ) ( ) }

By differentiating rules in equation (8) we obtained

. /

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Equation (9) is the relativistic Form of Newton‟s second law

For acceleration,

( )

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 Relativistic Energy and Mass-Energy relationship
(Mass- Energy equivalence)
The mass-energy equation is the most famous and most significant relationship obtained
by Einstein from the postulate of special relativity. Numerous experiment have
demonstrated that the mass is convertible into energy, and energy into mass,
Let‟s consider a particle of mass acted upon by force in the same direction as its
velocity . Increase in energy of the particle by application of force may be defined in
terms of work which is the product of force and displacement.
Thus, if a force displaces the particle through a small distance then workdone is
stoned by the particle as its kinetic energy

Then, = work in bringing the body from rest to its present state of motion

but , then

By substituting equation (3) in equation (2) , we‟ve

Differentiating equation (4) we‟ve

Finally,

Now, we also know that the mass variation with velocity as

√
Squaring both side

( )

Differentiating equation (3) we‟ve

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Now, comparing equation (a) and (b), we‟ve

Integrating equation (c) we‟ve

∫ ∫

But we know that, the total energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the rest energy,
that is:

The rest energy

Hence, by substitutions, equation (d) becomes

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Equation (e) is the famous Albert Einstein energy-mass relationship.

Relativistic relationship between Energy and Momentum

We already drive the energy-mass relationship as

But
√

Equation (1) becomes

equation (3) becomes

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 √

Squaring both sides we‟ve

Hence,
√
,

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Equation (d) shows the relationship between relativistic Energy and Momentum

Examples

1. Calculate the relativistic energy and momentum of a proton which is moving

with speed of

2. If the energy of photon is Calculate

(i) Momentum
(ii) Relativistic mass

3. Find mass and speed of electron.

4. A proton which is the nucleus of a hydrogen atom has a rest mass

. Find total energy when
(a) it‟s at rest (b) moving with velocity of

5. If the kinetic energy of a body double its rest mass energy. Find it velocity.
√

6. A proton of rest energy 938 MeV has a total energy of 1400 MeV.
(a) What is its speed? (b) What is its momentum?
7. Calculate the energy of mass .
8. Prove that the particle having rest mass zero always moves with velocity of
light.

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Application of Einstein mass-energy equivalence relation

1. To find out the binding energy in an atomic nucleus.

2. To find out the change in mass during the chemical reactions (Mass defect ).

3. To understand nuclear fission and fusion reactions.

(We can also know from this equation that a large amount of energy is liberated
during fusion reactions and nuclear fission)

4. To understand the universe, its constituents, and the age of planets, The equation is
used

5. The radioactivity of various elements is based on the theory of mass-energy

equivalence. Radioactivity produces X-rays, gamma rays. So in much radiotherapy
equipment, the same principle is used.

BLACKBODY RADIATION

1.0 Black Body Radiation:

When heated, Solids emit radiation varying over a wide range of wavelengths. For
example: when we heat solid the colour changes with a further increase in temperature.
This change in colour happens from a lower frequency region to a higher frequency
region as the temperature increases. For example, in many cases, it changes from red to
blue. An ideal body which can emit and absorb radiation of all frequencies is called a
black body. The radiation emitted by such bodies is called black body radiation.
A black body can be simply defined as:
A black body is an ideal body that absorbs all radiation incidents on it irrespective of
wave length.
Its radiation emitting properties are proved to be independent of nature of material of the
body and vary in a simple way with temperature. In practice, a black body can be
approximated as a hallow cavity with a small hole. The walls of the cavity are
continuously emitting and absorbing radiation. Such a black body is also known as cavity
radiator.
Hence an opening in the cavity of a body is a good approximation of a blackbody.

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 Fig. 1 (Black body)
The Spectral distribution of radiation emitted from a blackbody for different blackbody
temperature is shown in the figure below: (that is the Intensity radiation against
frequency curve)

Fig. 2 Spectral distribution of radiation emitted from a blackbody for different blackbody
temperature
(Intensity radiation against frequency curve)

Measurements of intensity I for a blackbody are displayed in Figure 2.

Two important observations should be noted in the figure which are:
1. The maximum of the distribution shifts to smaller wavelengths as the temperature is
increased.
2. The total power radiated increases with the temperature.

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  The first observation is expressed in Wien‟s displacement law:

Where is the wavelength of the peak of the spectral distribution at a given

temperature.
We can see in Figure 1.0 that the position of varies with temperature as prescribed
by Equation (1)
Wilhelm Wien received the Nobel Prize in 1911 for his discoveries concerning radiation.

This relation, shows that decreases with increasing temperature of the body, is
called Wien’s displacement law.

It can be used to determine the wavelength corresponding to the maximum intensity if the
temperature of the body is known or, conversely, to determine the temperature of the
radiating body if the wavelength of greatest intensity is known.

 The second observation the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

Where is the emissivity for an idealized blackbody)

is Stefan–Boltzmann constant and experimentally measured to be

Therefore,

The Stefan-Boltzmann law equation can be applied to any material for which the
emissivity is known
Thus, Equation (2) is a useful and valuable relation for practical scientific and
engineering work.

The nature of the blackbody radiation depends only on the temperature of the body, not
on the material composition of the object. The distribution of energy in blackbody
radiation varies with wavelength and temperature. The total amount of energy (area under
the curve) it emits increase with the temperature. The peak of the distribution shifts to
shorter wavelengths. This shift obeys Wien‟s displacement law: The classical theory of
thermal radiation at the end of 19th century failed to explain the distribution of energy of
the blackbody radiation

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Attempts to understand and derive from basic principles the shape of the blackbody
spectral distribution in figure (2) above were unsuccessful and this presented a serious
dilemma to the best scientists of the day. The nature of the dilemma can be understood
from classical electromagnetic theory, together with statistical thermodynamics.

Examples:

1. Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the human
body when the skin temperature is 35°C.

(This radiation is in the infrared region of the spectrum and is invisible to the
human eye)
2. Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the tungsten
filament of a light bulb, which operates at 2000K

(This radiation is also in the infrared, meaning that most of the energy emitted
by a light bulb is not visible to us)
3. Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation emitted by the Sun, which
has a surface temperature of approximately 5800K.

4. If the radiation emitted by the star has a maximum intensity at a wavelength of

446 nm. Determine its surface temperature
5. Assuming a star radiate like a blackbody with surface temperature of 6500K,
estimate the total power per unit surface area emitted at the surface of the star.

6. Calculate intensity of the sun with a surface temperature of 5800 K.

The theoretical study of the observed features of black body radiation in 1900 by the
German physicist, Max Plank laid the foundation of modern quantum physics.
The following hypothesis phenomena and explain the particle nature of light:
I. Plank Hypothesis
II. Photoelectric Effect
III. The Compton Effect.

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 I. Planck’s Hypothesis

To solve the discrepancy between the classical physics prediction and the
observation of the blackbody radiation spectrum, in 1900 Planck developed a
formula for the spectrum that explains the observed spectrum behavior.
Planck succeeded in 1900 in avoiding the ultraviolet catastrophe and proposed an
accurate description of blackbody radiation. In sharp contrast to Rayleigh‟s
assumption that a standing wave can exchange any amount (continuum) of energy
with matter, Planck considered that the energy exchange between radiation and
matter must be discrete.
He then postulated that the energy of the radiation emitted by the oscillating
charges (from the walls of the cavity) must come only in integer multiples of

That is :

Where

ii

where the quantum number n specifies the quantum state.

This shows that Energy is quantized. Each discrete energy value represents a different
quantum state. That is :

 Energy is quantized in steps of

 One quanta of energy or radiation is known as a photon

II. Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the
surface of a metal when light is incident on it.
The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.

The phenomenon shows that the energies of electrons liberated by light depend on
the frequency of the light

The photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy quantization
of light. In 1887 Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect:

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 Below is the diagram of the phenomenon

Fig.1.0 (photoelectric effect)

The experimental facts about the photoelectric effect are:-

1. The kinetic energies of the photoelectrons are independent of the light intensity.
In other words, a stopping potential (applied voltage) of V0 is sufficient to stop all
photoelectrons, no matter what the light intensity.
2. The maximum kinetic energy ( of the photoelectrons, for a given emitting
material, depends only on the frequency of the light.
In other words, for light of different frequency a different retarding potential V0 is
required to stop the most energetic photoelectrons
3. The smaller the work function of the emitter material, the lower is the
threshold frequency of the light that can eject photoelectrons.
No photoelectrons are produced for frequencies below this threshold frequency, no
matter what the intensity.
4. When the photoelectrons are produced, however, their number is proportional to
the intensity of light.

The total energy is given by:

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 And

Therefore equation (1) can be written as:

Note that:
 In the event that no photoelectric effect will occur.
 In the event that , the photoelectric effect will occur.

Examples
1. Find the work function of sodium for which the threshold frequency is

2. Find maximum kinetic energy in eV of photoelectrons if the work function of the

material is 2.33eV and frequency of radiation is

3. If De-Broglie wavelength of an electron is . Find the speed of

electron

III. The Compton Effect

In 1923, Compton performed an experiment and he observed that the wavelength
of X-rays changes after scattering from a graphite target. Compton explained his
experimental results postulating that the incident X-rays beam consists of photons,
and these photons experienced Billiard-Ball like collision with the free electrons in
the scattering target.

Fig. 2.0 (Compton Effect)

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According to the quantum theory of light, photons behave like particles except for their
lack of rest mass. How far can this analogy be carried? For instance, can we consider a
collision between a photon and an electron as if both were billiard balls?
Figure (2) above shows such a collision: an x-ray photon strikes an electron at rest and is
scattered away from its original direction of motion while the electron receives an
impulse and begins to move.
We can think of the photon as losing an amount of energy in the collision that is the
same as the kinetic energy KE gained by the electron, although actually separate photons
are involved.
The initial photon has the frequency of
The scattered photon has the lower frequency of
Where
Loss in photon energy = gain in electron energy

recall that the momentum of a massless particle is related to its energy by the formula

Compton scattering from X-ray, electron scattering and can simply be analyzed using
relativistic conservation of energy and momentum to give Compton shift formula as:

Where:

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Equation (a) was derived by Arthur H. Compton in the early 1920s, and the
phenomenon it describes, which he was the first to observe, is known as the
Compton effect. It constitutes very strong evidence in support of the quantum
theory of radiation.

 Why Compton Effect is an evidence for the particle nature of electromagnetic

radiation?
 Reason: The experimental observations of the frequency and cross section of
scattering in Compton Effect reveal that the scattering occurs in the same way as
scattering between billiard balls. This is in contrast to the classical picture where a
charged particle gets excited by an incident electromagnetic wave and emits
radiation thereafter.
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Examples
1. A monochromatic x-ray beam whose wavelength is 55.8pm is scattered through
460. Find the wavelength of the scattered beam.

2. What is the frequency of an x-ray photon whose momentum is

3. X-rays with certain wavelength are scattered from a carbon target. The scattered
radiation is viewed at 900 to the incident beam. Calculate the Compton shift?

4. A particular X-ray photon has a wavelength 41.6pm. Calculate the photon‟s

(a) Energy (b) frequency (c) the momentum

2.0 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

(We cannot know the future because we cannot know the present)

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:-

It states that it is impossible to know both the exact position and exact momentum
of an object at the same time.

This principle, which was discovered by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, is one of the
most significant of physical laws.
Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle imposes a restriction on the accuracy of
simultaneous measurement of position and momentum. The more precise our
measurement of position is, the less accurate will be our momentum measurement
and vice-versa.

 Uncertainty equation for momentum and position given by:

But , therefore

 Uncertainty equation for Energy and time it‟s given by

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Examples
1. A microscope using photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a
distance of 12pm. What is the minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the
electron located in this way?
2. A nucleus in an excited state will return to its ground state, emitting a gamma ray
in the process. If its mean life time is 8.7 ps in a particular excited state of energy,
find the uncertainty in the energy of the corresponding emitted gamma-ray photon.

3. An atom in an excited state temporarily stores energy. If the lifetime of this

excited state is measured to be 1 × 10−10 s, what is the minimum uncertainty in the
energy of the state in eV?
4. The uncertainty of measurement is only what is the mean life
interval between production and decay of this particle?

2.0 NEIL’S BOHR ATOMIC THEORY

Neil Bohr (1885 – 1962) assumed basically Rutherford nuclear-model of the atom
and tried to overcome the defects of the model. He proposed the postulates.
Bohr stated that electrons move in different orbits, or energy levels, around the
nucleus like planets orbit the sun. Each energy level is located a specific distance
from the nucleus and contains a certain number of electrons. In order to explain the
spectral lines of hydrogen atoms, Bohr modified the Rutherford model with the help
of plank quantum theory and Einstein photon concept.

Fig. 3.0 (transition of electron)

Based on the figures above, Bohr gives a convincing explanation for the stability of atom.
Bohr retain two essential points of Rutherford‟s model which are: (I-II)
I. The Centre of the atom is called nucleus where all charges mass are
centered (P+N)

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 II. Electron move around the nucleus in a circular path just like the planets
revolve round the sun
He extended his model further by utilizing Plank‟s Quantum theory
III. An electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in
just certain define and discrete orbits. Such orbit are also known as
stationary orbit.
IV. While revolving in these permitted stationary orbit, the electron does not
radiate out any electromagnetic energy.
V. The electron radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from one
energy orbit to another. If E2 and E1 are energies corresponding to two
orbits before and after the jump , the frequency of the emitted photon is
given by
Or
Where the frequency of the emitted radiation and h is Plank constant

From the above theories we came up with Bohr Postulate

3.1Bohr Postulate
Bohr assumed basically Rutherford nuclear-model of the atom and tried to overcome
the defects of the model. He proposed the postulate. Neils Bohr gave the postulate
about atomic structure in 1913. He develop his theory of the hydrogen atom (1
electron system) based upon the following four postulate
1. An electron in an atom revolves in a circular orbit around the nucleus under the
influence of coulomb attraction between the electron and nucleus obeying the
laws of classical mechanics
2. In case of finite orbit around the nucleus, the electron can exist only certain orbit
for which the angular orbital momentum L is the integral multiple of , and

Where n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ……..
3. An electron moving in such an allowed orbit does not radiate electromagnetic
energy. This means that the total energy is constant
4. Electromagnetic radiation is emitted if an electron moves from higher orbit to
lower orbit

Where h is the Plank‟s constant = 6.64 × 10–34Js

Now we will apply Bohr‟s postulate to hydrogen atom and drive the all parameters
associated with hydrogen atom which include Velocity, wave length, radius and total
energy e.t.c.

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3.12 Limitations of Bohr’s Model
1. It applies to one-electron atoms and not many-electron
2. It cannot be used for quantitative explanation of chemical bonding.
3. Bohr‟s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic
field on the spectra of atoms).
4. It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of
atoms).
5. It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
6. It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.
Hydrogen is the simplest atom with one electron orbits around one proton, their
electrostatic attraction to one another balanced by the centrifugal force due to the orbit.

3.13 Spectral line series

Spectral line series, any of the related sequences of wavelengths characterizing the light
and other electromagnetic radiation emitted by energized atoms. The simplest of these
series are produced by hydrogen. Hydrogen displays five series in various parts of the
spectrum, the best-known being the Balmer series in the visible region. Johann Balmer, a
Swiss mathematician, discovered (1885) that the wavelengths of the visible hydrogen
lines can be expressed by a simple formula:

……………………………..2.1

The constant R is known as the Rydberg constant, after Johannes Robert Rydberg, a
Swedish physicist.

The four other spectral line series, in addition to the Balmer series, are named after their
discoverers,
1. Theodore Lyman
2. A.H. Pfund
3. F.S. Brackett of the United States
4. Friedrich Paschen of Germany.
The Lyman series lies in the ultraviolet, whereas the Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series
lie in the infrared.
Atoms of other elements that have lost all their electrons but one, and therefore are
hydrogen-like (e.g., singly ionized helium and doubly ionized lithium), also emit
radiation that can be analyzed into spectral line series that can be expressed by formulas
similar to Balmer‟s.
The series constituting hydrogen spectrum are:

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 1. Lyman Series
……………………………. n = 2,3,4,5,6……

2. Balmer Series
…………………………….. n = 3,4,5,6,7……

3. Paschen Series
…………………………….. n = 4,5,6,7,8…..

4. Brackett
…………………………….. n = 5,6,7,8,9…

5. Pfund
…………………………… n = 6,7,8,9,10…

 The transition rule

Fig. 2.1 (transition rule)

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 4.0 THE DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
The explanation of spectral distribution of black body radiation by Plank results in
concept of energy quanta which was later known as photon. Einstein explained
photoelectric effect by considering that light wave is consisting of photons. In1922,
the discovery of Compton Effect confirmed the behaviour of photons as particle of
negligible rest mass. These facts established the particle nature of the wave.
In 1925, Louis De-Broglie reasoned that:
(a) Nature loves symmetry, and its is symmetrical in many ways
(b) The universe is composed of light and matter
(c) If light, a wave, shows particle character, then the particles of material may show
wave nature.
The de Broglie Wavelength: According to de Broglie a moving particle, whatever its
nature, has wave properties associated with it. He proposed that the wavelength λ
associated with any moving particle of momentum p (mass m and velocity v) is given by:

Where h is Planck‟s constant. Such waves associated with the matter particles are called
matter waves or de Broglie waves.
When

, √ , √

……………………………………….1
√

……………………………………….2
√

Therefore, de Broglie wave length of an electron may be written as

……………………………………….3
√

where:

De Broglie had no direct experimental evidence to support his conjecture. However, he

shows that his theory accounts energy quantization in natural way.
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The idea of matter waves was tested by C.J Davisson and L.H Germer in USA and G.P
Thomson in England independently. They confirm de Broglie hypothesis experimentally.
Thus the idea of wave nature of material body was established.
Example:
1. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100V. Calculate the de
Broglie wavelength of the electron.
2. Find the de Broglie wavelength associated with
(i) A 46g golf ball with velocity 36 m/s.
(ii) An electron with a velocity 107 m/s.
(iii) Which of these two show wave character and why?

3. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for a beam of electrons of kinetic energy

1.6x10-17J

SCHRÖDINGER WAVE EQUATIONS

Just like how Newton‟s law of motion is fundamental in Newtonian mechanics so is
Schrödinger equation is fundamental in Quantum mechanics.
Schrödinger equation is a wave equation, which links time evolution of the wave function
of the state to the Hamiltonian of the state. Schrödinger equation was proposed in 1926.
For most of systems Hamiltonian “represents” total energy of the system

Hamiltonian is defined also classically, and equations of motions for classical systems
can be written using derivatives of the Hamiltonian.
Schrödinger equation is introduced as a method of finding matter waves or wave function
for a given system.
In fact, Schrodinger‟s wave equation is the fundamental equation of quantum mechanics
in the same sense the second law of motion is the fundamental equation of Newtonian
(classical) mechanics.

Wave function Ψ
According to de-Broglie concept of matter waves, every moving particle is associated
with wave. Schrödinger introduced a mathematical function represented by Ψ which is a
variable quantity associated with moving particle. This is a complex function of space,
coordinates of the particle and time.
Ψ is called the wave function [ ].

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Schrödinger wave equation is just an analogue of Newtonian equations of motion in
classical physics.
There are two forms of Schrödinger wave equation they are:

1. Time independent Schrödinger wave equation (TISWE)

2. Time dependent Schrödinger wave equation (TDSWE)

1. Time independent Schrödinger wave equation (TISWE)

According to de-Broglie theory, a particle of mass m is always associated with a wave

whose wavelength is given by . Consider a system of stationary waves associated
with a particle. Let x,y,z be the coordinates of the particle and Ψ, the wave displacement
for de-Broglie at any time t (Fig. 1.1). Ψ is called wave function.

Wave packet

Particle (x,y,z)

Fig. 1.1

The classical differential equation of a wave motion is

…………………………………………………1

Ψ gives periodic displacement in terms of time i.e

…………………………………………….2

Consider the position r, where r (x,y,z) equation (2) can be expressed as

…………………………………………….3

By differentiating equation (3) twice w.r.t t

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 …………………………………….4

Knowing that

(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)

Hence the TISWE is

………………………………..(A)
Equation (A) is known as the TISWE

For free particle V = 0 , therefore equation (A) becomes

……………………….. (i)

The solution to this equation (Equation A) is a wave that describes the quantum aspects
of a system.
Schrodinger's equation shows the entire wave like properties of matter and was one of
greatest achievements of 20th century science.

The time independent Schrödinger equation used for describing standing waves.

2. Time dependent Schrödinger wave equation (TDSWE)

The Time dependent Schrödinger wave equation may be obtained from time independent
Schrödinger wave equation( i.e from equation A) by eliminating E.

………………………………1

We know that

……………………………………….2

Differentiating equating (2) wrt t we get

………………………………………3

But also therefore

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Similarly, full and details of the derivation should be during the lectures

Hence, the TDSWE is given by

……………………………………………(B)

Equation (B) is the TDSWE, and can further be simplified as

……………………….(b)
Where
( ) and
(Note: Full details of derivation during lectures)
The time dependent equation is used for describing progressive waves, applicable to the
motion of free particles.

Schrodinger equation can be applied for determining the total energy of an electron when
is moving in an electric field so that its potential energy V is specified in terms of space
co-ordinates and not of time.
Like other differential equations, its solutions are also governed by boundary conditions.
Generally, solutions are only obtained for certain energy values called characteristic or
eigen-values.

Applications of Schrödinger Equation

Solution of Schrödinger equation may be found for the following cases:

(i) Finding the total energy of an electron
(ii) Particles in a box Particle (Energy quantization)
(iii) Particles in a potential well (radioactive disintegration)
(iv) Hydrogen atom and
(v) Rotating molecule.
End
You may wish to consult the following textbooks so as to expand your horizon and study
more.
1. Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser, 2. Modern Physics for Scientist and
Engineers by R.R Yadav. 3. Modern Physics by Stephen Thornton
4. Any Engineering Physics

LET PHYSICS BE YOUR BEST FRIEND, YOU WILL NEVER REGRET IT.
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