1.

Introduction

Welcome to the practical component of the Physics module. Skills to be acquired from the practical
component can be transferred to other subjects that you do during your studies. In addition,
experiments that are to be performed are aimed at confirming concepts discussed during Physics
lectures.

A practical test shall be written towards the end of the semester, with the marks obtained
contributing towards the student’s Physics module final mark.

In the case of any further information or clarity, on the Physics practicals being required, please feel
free to contact Dr S Dlamini ([email protected]) or Mr N Kgasi ([email protected]).

2. Take note.

To understand the world we live in, we formulate theories, and must prove their truth by testing
them. To this end, experiments are conducted. However, before doing an experiment, one must be
certain about the subject of investigation; how to go about doing the investigation, and finally, to
present outcomes in an appropriate way.

To undertake this process successfully, one would require proper equipment/apparatus, identify
possible sources of errors and uncertainties, properly record observations without bias and/or
prejudice, use sound reasoning to reach a conclusion, and present results in an appropriate format.

3. Conducting an experiment

It is vital to carefully plan an investigation of any physical phenomenon. Therefore, before

commencing an experiment, prevailing and related theories of the phenomenon under investigation
must be well surveyed. The procedure to be followed should be according to prevailing scientific
recommendations. Equipment measurement ranges, proper calibration and levels of accuracy have
to be noted and confirmed.

The competency of the experimenter is also critical for the validity and acceptance of the results
While performing an experiment, the experimenter has to take into account possible sources of
errors and try to limit their influence on the results as much as possible. However, one has to
understand that no experiment could be 100% accurate. The point is to try to be as accurate as
possible. However, information on the error margin must be included in the practical report.

After conducting an experiment, the validity of collected data has to be checked, then the result can
be analysed, and conclusions inferred.

4. Experimental errors, accuracy, and precision

One of the most critical aspects required during the conduction of an experiment is the ability to
eliminate or reduce any error that can affect the accuracy of the experimental outcomes. However,
the likelihood of an error affecting experimental process is high, no matter how precise and accurate
the experimenter could be.
Sources of errors might be (i) the skill of the person conducting the experiment, (ii) poor preparation
and conduction of the experiment and (ii) limitations and malfunctioning of apparatus used.

Though the elimination of all experimental challenges is near impossible, it is important that
everything is done to conduct the experiment as accurately and impartially as is possible.

In physics, the term error is linked to the precision and uncertainty of a measurement and its
readings. There are two types of error, namely: random errors and systematic errors.

4.1 Random errors

This type of error is observed when the magnitude of a physical quantity of a
substance measured under the same conditions, varies with each measurement.
4.1.1 The error might be as a result of changing conditions under which a quantity
is measured; e.g. length of a metallic rod measured at different
temperatures.
4.1.2 The error can also be due to physical factors of the measured object; this
can be seen; for example, if one measures dimensions of an object whose
edges are not uniform throughout.
4.1.3 Random error might also arise when an experimenter does not properly
estimate divisional fractions of an instrument when required to; e.g.
determining the length of a quantity to 0.1 mm using a ruler.

4.2 Systematic errors

A systematic error is an error for which the measurement of a quantity might appear
to be accurate and consistent, yet it is always inaccurate.
4.2.1 This type of error is mostly due to the an improper usage or an instrument
or its poor calibration; e.g. using a poorly calibrated stopwatch, for which 1 s
≠ 100 ms, to measure time taken for an object to fall over a fixed length in a
laboratory.
In such a case, the recorded time shall contain a fixed amount of
uncertainty.

4.2.2 This type of error can also be observed when the user of an instrument does
not use it in a proper/correct way.

Accuracy of an experiment depends on the magnitude of errors linked to it. The level
of accuracy is high if negligible amount of random errors and none or very few
systematic errors were incurred during the experiment.

It is, however, vital to note that accuracy and precision of the experimental results
depend mainly on (i) the precision and sensitivity of apparatus, (ii) the level of
accuracy of measurements and (iii) competency of the experimenter.

5. Meaning and accuracy of data

Calibration and make-up of any instrument used to collect data during experimentation is crucial (it
is important that the experimenter has high level of confidence in the precision of the equipment
being used). It is also critical that the experimenter has a proper knowledge of the usage of the
equipment being utilised.

All measurements are to a certain degree, approximations. For example, in using a ruler to measure
the length of a nail, the answer may be given as 3.46 cm, but it is better to state the length as 3.46 
0.01 cm, as one cannot be 100% certain about the true value, especially regarding the last digit of
the reading. This implies that the reading ranges from 3.45 cm to 3.47 cm.
The quantity 0.01cm is called the reading error of the result. Magnitude of the reading error is linked
to the smallest division of the measuring device.

If, instead of a ruler, a micrometre screw gauge is used to determine the length, and the nail
measurement of 3.461  0.002 cm is obtained, the reading error of the measurement is in this case
0.002 cm.

Note: The used ruler can take a reading, with “reasonable certainty”, up to two decimal places;
while the micrometer screw gauge can do so up to three decimal places. And, whenever a
reading of a measurement is taken, the reading error digit (error of measurement) carries an
element of uncertainty.

In the nail reading that was done using a ruler, three digits could be recorded, (i.e. 3, 4 and 6); whilst
the reading done with a micrometer, four digits could be recorded (3, 4, 6 and 1). The first reading is
said to have three significant figures whilst the second has four significant figures. The number of
significant figures depends mainly on the extent of accuracy of the apparatus being used during
investigation.

5RULES FOR CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

5.1.1 Start counting from the first non-zero digit.

Example: 1029: the first significant digit is 1.
0.322: the first significant digit is 3.

5.1.2 If there is no decimal point, the last non-zero digit is the last significant digit.
Example: 1029: the last significant digit is 9.
2130: the last significant digit is 3.

5.1.3 If there is a decimal point, the last digit is the last significant digit.
Example: 0.322: the last significant digit is 2 (the second one).
11.30: the last significant digit is 0.

` 5.1.4 All digits between the first and the last significant digit are also significant.
Example: 1029 has 4 significant figures. (1, 0, 2 and 9)
0.322 has 3 significant figures. (3, 2 and 2)
 2130 has 3 significant figures. (2, 1 and 3)
11.30 has 4 significant figures. (1, 1, 3 and 0)

5.1.5 Given a number expressed as A × 10z (i.e. in scientific notation), where A and z are
numbers. To determine the number significant of the measurement, apply the
above rules to the A part, and totally ignore the {× 10z} portion.
Example: 3 x 108 has 1 significant figure (i.e. 3)
1.6 x 10-19 has 2 significant figures (i.e. 1 and 6)
0.21 x 105 has 2 significant figures (i.e. 2 and 1)
1.010 x 103 has 4 significant figures (what are those figures?)

Exercise: State the number of significant figures in each of the following

numbers:
1. 123
2. 12.30
3. 0.0394
4. 90.210
5. 52 × 102
6. 0.230 × 10-16

ROUNDING OFF OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

A recording can have more digits than needed/required. To overcome this, the number of
digits can be reduced to the required number of significant digits.

Example: 123.678 has six recorded digits. These can be reduced from six to any
number less than six, [in this instant, make it four significant figures].
When this is done, 123.678 shall be recorded as 123.7.

There are rules to round-off digits to the required number of significant figures.

In rounding-off significant figures, the last significant digit and the preceding digits
determine how a number is rounded-off.

5.2.1 If the digit which comes after the one we intend making the last significant digit (i.e.
rounding off to) is greater than 5, add one to the last significant digit.

Example: Round-off the following numbers to three significant figures:

1. 3.279
2. 4.1769
 3. 45680

Solutions:
1. 3.279 has four digits and then since we round off to three,
we only observe properties of the fourth digit (underlined
digit). The fourth digit (9) is greater than 5, add 1 to the
third digit (i.e., 7 + 1 and change 7 to 8). Two three
significant figures 3.279 becomes 3.28.

2. 4.1769 has 5 digits. The fourth digit is 6 (> 5). We then add
1 to 7 and that will give us 8. Therefore, 4.1769 rounded-off
to three significant figures becomes 4.18.

3. 45680 becomes 457 × 102. Why?

5.2.2 If the digit which comes the one, we intend making the last significant digit is less
than 5, then the last significant digit does not change.

Example: Round-off the following to four significant figures

1. 7593.03
2. 8953402
3. 0.054671

Solutions:
1. 7593.03 has 6 digits. Since we round off four, we observe if
the fifth (underlined digits) = 0
It is observed that 0 is less than 5 then 3 shall not change.
Therefore, to four significant figures 7593.03 becomes 7593.

2. 8953402 becomes 8953 × 103

3. 0.054671 becomes 0.05467.

5.2.3 If there is a 5 only (or a 5 followed by recurring zeros to the last digit) after the last
significant digit and the last significant digit is odd, add one to it. If the last
significant digit is even, do not add anything.

Example: Round-off the following to two significant figures:

1. 235
2. 0.3450000
 3. 25 x 10-2

Solutions:
1. 235 has three digits.
Since the third digit is 5 and the second digit of 235 is 3 (an
odd number), rounding-off to two significant figures 235
becomes 24 × 10 or 240.

2. 0.3450000 becomes 0.34

3. 25 × 10-2 remains 25 × 10-2

5.2.4 If there is more than one digit after the last significant one, and the next digit is 5
followed by at least one non-zero digit, add one to the last digit.

Example: Round-off the following numbers to three significant figures:

1. 23451
2. 832510
3. 7.48503
4. 1.005005

Solution.
1. 23451 has five digits.
23451 has five significant figures, with 4 being the third.
Thus, 5 would be the fourth one digit, followed by 1. In this
case, one is added to 4 and the recording should still be in
ten thousands. Therefore, to three significant figures 23451
becomes 23500 or 2.35 × 104 or . . .

2. 832510 becomes 833 × 103

3. 7.48503 becomes 7.49

4. 1.005005 becomes 1.01

COMBINATION OF NUMBERS WITH DIFFERENT SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

When an experiment is done a number of different physical variables can be required to

obtain the quantity being investigated.
Example: To calculate average speed of a ball, we need information about distance
that is covered by the ball and the time over which it covers that distance.

Question: If ‘d’ is the distance and ‘t’ is time, what is speed in terms of ‘d’ and ‘t’?

This then leads one to question the number of significant figures that can be quoted in a
sum, difference, product and quotient of quantities with different significant numbers.

RULE 1: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The number of significant figures after the decimal indicates the accuracy for quantities
which are added or subtracted from each other.
The sum or difference is made to correspond with a quantity that has the least number of
figures after the decimal.

Example: 12.764
+ 2.26
+10.2907
= 25.3147

However, this number is not correctly quoted. Why?

The correct result is 25.31

RULE 2: MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The number of significant figures for a product or quotient is important. The answer is
quoted to correspond to a number that has the least number of significant figures.

Example: 12.764
× 2.26
× 10.2907
= 296.8521148

However, this number is not correctly quoted. Why? The correct result is 297.

NB. If there are numbers without a decimal point, we do not consider significant figures
that constitute it.

Exercise: Determine the sum and product of the following numbers

1. 12.093
2. 0.83472
3. 190.06
 4. 3.97759

5 Usage of graphs in interpreting experimental data

In experimental work, graphs have various crucial usages:

1. As a visual aid to illustrate the relationship between two quantities.
2. To test for an empirical relation between two quantities.
3. To deduce some physical quantity usually form the slope of the graph or from the
intercepts with the axis.

Relationship between physical quantities can result in many types of graphs. If two quantities are
directly proportional to each other, a graph that show this type of relationship is a straight line graph
whose slope magnitude greater than zero, but less than infinity. If the quantities are inversely
proportional to each other, their relationship is represented to by a hyperbola.

Based on your knowledge of graphs, a quantity plotted on the y-axis, has its magnitude dependent
on the quantity on the x-axis of a graph. During an experiment, when magnitude of one physical
quantity (say B) depends on magnitude of another quantity (say A); for each value of A (plotted on
the x-axis) is linked to a corresponding value of B (to be plotted on the y-axis).

Upon plotting the graph for each pair (A, B) of readings, and a straight line being obtained, where
physical quantity A (on the x-axis of the graph) is directly proportional to physical quantity B (on the
y-axis). The equation for this relation is: y = mx + c
where m is the slope (gradient) of the line and c the intercept with the y-axis (see Figure 1).

If the line passes through the origin, then y = mx, and y is said to be directly proportional to x; i.e. y 
x. The slope of the line is equal to the constant of proportionality m.

Quantities can be inversely proportional to each other. This is the case when one quantity increases
and the other decreases, i.e. if y increases, x decreases or if y decreases, x increases. Thus, y α 1/x

(i.e. y is inversely proportional to x). This can be written in the equivalent form: xy = k

6 DRAWING GRAPHS (THE WHOLE TRUTH…)

Graphs are generally used to determine relationships between quantities. For the graph to be used
effectively for scientific investigation, it is important for it to be plotted unambiguously and
accurately. To do this, we follow a simple procedure:

6.1 Set out values of the two quantities in a table. Label each column each physical
quantity, symbol and unit (see table 1), Make sure that readings are correctly
 recorded.
Note. As an example we shall use information (data) obtained in an experiment in which
we determine the earth’s gravitational acceleration. In this experiment, a pendulum
is made to make small swings for a certain number of oscillations, at a specific
length. The period of oscillation of the swings and the pendulum length of motion are
recorded. The process is repeated for different lengths. (see Table 1)

Table 1
Length, L (cm) Period, T (s) Period2, T2 (s2)

85.5 1.87 3.50

75.0 1.72 2.96

60.3 1.56 2.43

50.1 1.39 1.93

40.5 1.31 1.72

30.6 1.07 1.14

6.2 Clearly write the title of the graph. The title must be written as: Graph of the dependent
variable vs the independent variable. The axes must be such that the dependent variable
(or “the effect”) is along the y-axis or vertical axis and the independent quantity (“the
cause”) is along the x-axis or horizontal axis. In the case of our experiment, the pendulum
length is an independent variable, while the period and period squared are dependent
variables. In a case in which we intend to determine acceleration, we shall draw a graph with
length and period squared. Thus, the graph title is Graph of period squared vs length

6.3 Choose convenient scales for the axes so that the graphs will cover a fair portion of the page
in each direction. Make 1 division (1 cm on metric graph paper) equivalent to 1, 2, 5 or 10
units of the quantity plotted (with appropriate powers of 10). Avoid a scaling like 1 division
= 3 or 4 units as this makes plotting and reading of information difficult
Do not include the origin unless the graph is expected to pass through it or unless asked for.

a. Label each axis, with the name of variable, symbol and unit, e.g. (Period)2, T
and (cm) (in Figure 1). Mark values at equal intervals along the axes (with the
correct power of 10).

b. Do not put in a statement of scales for the axes: (e.g. x - axis: 1 cm represent
5 s). The actual scale will be clear if the axes are properly labelled.
c. Mark the data points with circles, thus, or any other convenient symbol.
Make points, do not scribble points.

d. Draw a reasonable and smooth ‘best fit’ through the experimental points. The
graph should represent all points. Do not ‘join’ the points in a stepwise
fashion(so called line graph).

Fig. 1

(The above graph is drawn using experimental data that was recorded in table 1)

e. To determine the slope (or gradient) of a line, choose any two points on the line,
that are as far as possible from each other. If the co-ordinates of these two
points are (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), then the slope m is calculated as:
y 2 − y1
slope =
x 2 − x1

Note: x1, x2, y1 and y2 should not, necessarily, be chosen from the actual readings
taken in the experiment, but should be coordinates taken from the drawn line i.e.
the best straight line drawn using the experimental data.

(Based on theory, and using the data collected from the experiment (Table 1), and
the associated graph (Fig. 1), we determine magnitude of the earth gravitational
acceleration):
 T2
The slope L
of the graph shown in Fig. 1 is given by:
ΔT2 (3.5−2.0) s2
Slope = = = 4.00 × 10-2 s2.cm-1 = 4.00 s2.m-1 . . . (i)
ΔL (87.0−49.5) cm

(Points used to show the slope are shown in red in the above copy of the graph)

L
Since, T = 2∏√ → T2 = 4∏2 Lg
𝑔

T2 4
or = slope = ∏2 . . . (ii)
L 𝑔
4 4
Thus, (i) and (ii): g = ∏2 = ∏2
slope 4.00 𝑠 2 .𝑚−1

= 9.87 m.s-2

6.4 EXERCISE TO ENHANCE YOUR “NEWLY ACQUIRED” GRAPHICAL SKILLS

The following displacement readings were recorded at 1 s intervals for a youth

walking a distance of 30 m:

time, t (s) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Distance, d (m) 0.0 2.8 5.9 9.1 12.2 15.0 18.2 20.9 27.3

6.4.1 Draw the graph of displacement vs time.

 6.4.2 Use the slope of the graph to calculate the average speed of the youth.
6.4.3 Using the graph, what displacement was traversed by the youth after 4.5 s
and what was the time when 10 m were traversed?

Solution:

i. Write the title of the graph

iii. Decide on the scales to be uses
iv. Label each axis
v. Plot the points
vi. Draw the best possible line that represents most, of not all, points.

1. Since the slope displacement vs time gives us velocity. We shall take any
two points on the graph, i.e. (x1, y2) and (x2, y2) and calculate the slope.

2. To determine displacement traversed after 4.5 s, draw a vertical line from

4.5 s to the graph; at the point of intersection draw a horizontal line to the
displacement axis. Note displacement reading at the point where the
horizontal line intersects the displacement.

3. To determine time at 10 m, draw a horizontal line from 10 m to the graph;

at the point of intersection draw a vertical line to the time axis. Note time
reading at the point where the vertical line intersects the time axis.