NATURE AND GOALS OF STYLISTICS beauty in authorial and characters' linguistic choices and

opens the reader or listener's mind to the aesthetic

What is Stylistic? appeals of such choices.
The word style refers to the choice of words/expressions To ascertain linguistic habits: An author's style is the
in a given context by a given person for a given product of a particular linguistic habit, conditioned by
purpose. some social, cultural and ideological environments. The
Crystal and Davy (1983) opine that style is the objective of stylistics is to help determine the linguistic
“effectiveness of a mode of expression”. background and orientation of a given writer or speaker.

Style may be said to relate to communicative To make critical judgements: The application of
performance, which is the demonstration of the stylistics on a discourse may help a statistician to make
speaker's or writer's language capacity in generating and an evaluative or critical judgement. The critical
understanding specific communicative contexts. judgments made, based on veritable data are usually
Stylistics therefore is the study of style. objective, hence, stylistics can help us reveal a good
style from a bad one.
The Nature of Stylistics

Stylistics is a borderline discipline between language

and literature. It focuses on language use in both literary Summary:
and non-literary texts. In doing this, it uses insights from The goals of stylistics are to:
numerous disciplines such as literature, psychology,
sociology, philosophy and so on.  Spot what makes a writer’s or speaker’s
language unique.
Stylistics looks at style in such dimension as:  Help us enjoy and understand texts better.
 Reveal the habits or influences behind
Style as Choice: This considers style as the someone’s writing.
characteristic choices that a writer/speaker makes in a  Judge whether a text is effective or not based on
text at the various levels of language description. evidence.
 Stylistics makes language more interesting and
Style as Deviation: What is deviant i.e. what does not
meaningful by helping us see how it’s used in
conform to the ‘standard’ is said to be stylistically creative and practical ways!
significant. This can also be at any level of language
description.

Style as Situation: The situation is the context in which RHETORICS AND THE HISTORY OF STYLISTICS
a text comes to life. This could be physical, socio-
WHAT IS RHETORIC?
cultural, pragmatic, etc.
Rhetoric- the art of persuading someone through your
Style as Temporal Phenomenon: This deals with the
speech and writing.
time of relevance of style. Whether it is still in vogue or
not (ancient or modern).

e.g. OId English versus Modern English. REMEMBER THIS WORDS

Inform
Style as the Individual: This focuses on the specific
Persuade
features that are associated with particular individuals
Motivate
i.e. writers or speakers' idiolects.

The Goals of Stylistics Origin and Birthplace of 15th Century B.C

Speech and writings of:
The practice of stylistics is targeted at achieving certain
goals: PHILOSOPHERS:
To establish discourse peculiarities: Stylistics studies Plato
the peculiarities that characterize the discourse of a Socrates
writer, speaker, period, people, or genre. It could help us Aristotle
identify the British English style as different from the Examples of Rhetoric Stylistics
American English style, etc. I HAVE A DREAM
To induce appreciation of discourses: Stylistics by Martin Luther King
involves the appreciation of a discourse in order to
increase our enjoyment of the discourse. It unfolds the Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln
"I have a dream that my four children will one day live in Roman Jakobson- Poetic Language
a nation where they will not be judged by the color of
their skin but by the content of their character." Jan Mukarovsky- Prague Formalism - Aesthetic use of
Language
- Martin Luther King, Jr. /
Victor Shklovsky- Defamiliarization "Making Strange"
"I Have A Dream" speech,
________________________________
August 28, 1963
SECOND TOPIC
"Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about
things that matter." Influences: Analogists (Caesar) vs Anomalists
(Cicero)
- Martin Luther King, Jr.

GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE, BY THE PEOPLE,

FOR THE PEOPLE, SHALL NOT PERISH FROM THE Julius Caesar
EARTH. Full Name: Gaius Julius Caesar.
- ABRAHAM LINCOLN Born: July 12 or 13, 100 BCE, in Rome.
NOV. 19, 1863 Education: Studied rhetoric and philosophy

Military Career: Began as a soldier and quickly rose

Why is rhetoric in writing important? through the ranks, showing exceptional leadership and
tactical brilliance.
Writing effectively saves time.
Rhetoric and Poetics
THINGS TO CONSIDER
- The art of creating speech was called Rhetoric (from
Audience- Who are you writing to? the Greek techne rhetorike) and was taught as one of
the main subjects in schools.
Purpose- Why are you writing this? What's the point?
- The process of artistic creation was called Poetics. Its
Adjust your voice, tone, and persona to accommodate aim was to study a piece of art, and it focused on the
your communication situation. problems of expressing the ideas before the
actual moment of utterance.

BRIEF HISTORY OF STYLISTICS The development of Stylistics in ancient Rome, that is

RUSSIAN FORMALISM about 300 years later, brought the distinction of two
Stylistics can trace its roots to the formalist tradition that different styles in speech represented by Caesar and
developed in Russian literary criticism at the turn of the Cicero
20th century. Caesar and the Analogists:
Roman Jakobson (1896- 1892) - The term Analogist refers to people who believe in
"Poetic Language" using established rules and logical methods when
applying language or rhetoric, favoring consistency
The poetic function of a language is focused is those and clear structure.
communicative acts where the focus is on the message
for its own sake Regularity and rules

PRAGUE FORMALISM - Caesar and the Analogists believed in following

structured, systematic rules of language and speech.
Following Jakobson's emigration to Czechoslovakia in They preferred order and consistency in their writing
1920, Czech literary scholar Jan Mukarovsky (1891- and rhetoric.
1975) established Prague Linguistic /circle in 1926, the
birthplace of structuralism. Focused on facts and data

Mukarovsky was interested in identifying the formal and - Their works and speeches were grounded in reality,
functional distinctions between literary and non-literary relying on observable facts and logical reasoning rather
writing. than ornate or exaggerated language.

Notable people behind the History of Stylistics Simple, Clear, and Straightforward
- The goal of their rhetoric was clarity and effectiveness. “The dog barked loudly at the stranger, standing still in
They avoided overly complex or flowery language, the yard as it had been trained to do.”
focusing instead on delivering their message in a direct
and comprehensible manner. CICIERO ANOMALIST

Other Representatives - Seneca and Tacitus “The canine, its throat erupting with a resounding bark,
stood as though carved from stone, fixed upon the
- Alongside Caesar, figures like Seneca and Tacitus stranger who dared encroach upon its territory,
shared these principles. unwavering and resolute, as if bound by the ancient
training that had molded its very essence.”
Seneca was a philosopher and writer, known for his
clear and moralistic style, while Tacitus, a historian, is KEY TAKEAWAYS!
celebrated for his concise and factual approach
to recording history. ➢ CEASAR AND THE ANALOGISTS emphasized
simplicity, clarity, and rule
Swift action is the lifetime of hope, a beacon that will
pierce through the dark clouds of despair and bring based language.
salvation to those who await our aid. ➢ CICERO AND THE ANOMALIST valued creativity,
ornate language, and often

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO prioritizing style over substance.

WHO IS CICERO? ________________________________

-Was a Roman statesman, orator, lawyer, and THIRD TOPIC

philosopher who lived from 106 BC to 43 BC. INTRODUCTION OF STYLE AND NORMS
- He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and What is Style?
prose stylists
Style is the manner of expression of a particular writer.

Choice of words
Sentence Structure
CICERO AND THE ANOMALISTS Literary Devices
Rhythm
WHAT IS ANOMALISTS? Other Elements of Composition
- Anomalists are people who focus on studying or
exploring anomalies—things that are unusual, irregular, What are Norms?
or don’t follow normal patterns.
Norms are the unwritten rules and social expectations
- creation and development of "Ornate Dicere" that is that guide and constrain the behavior of individuals
flowery language within a society or group.
- used unnatural syntactic patterns

- created anomalies on all language levels. Two main Types of Norms

EXAMPLE: Descriptive norms: These are the typical or normal
behaviors that people actually engage in. They describe
Instead of “ The boy runs quickly,” they might say, “ The what most people do in a given situation.
young lad dashed with remarkable speed, as though
carried by the wind Injunctive norms: These are the behaviors that a group
approves or disapproves of. They prescribe what people
- due to their approach, where the true message and are caught to do.
communicated content were secondary to the form of
presentation, Rhetoric was called the "mother of lies"

- Cicero built his theory of rhetoric on the distinction INDIVIDUAL AND FUNCTIONAL STYLE
between three styles high, middle and low

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Individual Style
CAESAR ANALOGIES
 Individual Style is a unique combination of language Finger Gestures: Some individuals might use specific
units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to hand gestures (like a "thumbs up," peace sign, or a
a given writer, which makes that writer’s works or even particular way of pointing).
utterances easily recognizable.

Examples of Individual Style Functional Style

Fashion A system of language that uses specific words, sentence
structures, and phonetics to convey a specific message.
Street Style: Casual, trendy, and often a mix of high-end
and sporty pieces. For example, scientific prose uses precise, objective,
and unemotional language, while newspaper style is
Example: A graphic t-shirt with jeans, sneakers, and a
used to inform and instruct readers.
cool jacket.
A style of language can be fined as a system of
Minimalist Style: Simple, clean, and elegant with
coordinated, interrelated and inter- coordinated language
neutral colors and well-fitted clothes
means intended to full-fill a specific function of
Example: A white t-shirt with black pants and sleek communication and aiming at a defined effect.
shoes.
The English literary system has evolved a number of
Vintage Style: Old-fashioned clothes that look like styles easily distinguishable from one another.
they’re from past decades (like the '50s or '80s).

Example: A polka dot dress with retro shoes and

accessories.
Examples of Functional Styles

Official (documents and papers); Official style is the

most conservative one. It uses syntactical constructions
and archaic words. Emotiveness is banned out of this
style.
Body Language/ Mannerism
Scientific (brochures, articles, other scientific
Posture publications); Scientific style is employed in professional
communication to convey some information. It's most
Confident Posture: Standing tall, shoulders back, and conspicuous feature is the abundance of terms denoting
chin slightly lifted. objects, phenomena and processes characteristics of
some particular field of science and technique. Also
Tense Posture: Rigid body movements, clenched
precision clarity and logical cohesion.
fists, or stiff shoulders may indicate stress, discomfort, or
alertness. Publicistic (essay, public speech); Publicistic style is
famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion
Facial Expression
directed at influencing the reader in accordance with the
Smiling: A broad or subtle smile can be a reflection of argumentation of the author.
friendliness or happiness. Some people smile with just
Newspaper style (mass media); Newspaper style -
their lips, while others smile with their eyes.
special graphical means are used to attract the readers
Eye Contact: Some people naturally maintain strong eye attention.
contact, which can indicate confidence or honesty, while
Belles-lettres style (genre of creative writing); Belles-
others may avoid eye contact, signaling shyness or
lettres style - the richest register of communication
discomfort.
besides its own language means, other styles can be
Gestures used besides informative and persuasive functions,
belles-lettres style has a unique task to impress the
Hand Movements: Using them to emphasize points or reader aesthetically.
convey emotions, while others may keep their hands still
or fidget with them. _______________________________

FOURTH TOPIC

DENOTATIVE VS. CONNOTATIVE

Meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or
describes.
for Vugodsky is a unity of thinking,
generalization, and communication. The meaning of a Examples:
word is liable to historic changes, which is responsible • She is the pill for my heartache.
for the formation of an expanded semantic structure of a • My children are my sunshine.
word.

• In stylistics, it is a category capable of acquiring new FOUR COMPONENTS OF CONNOTATIVE MEANING:

aspects imposed on the words by the context. Such
meanings are called contextual. Emotive

• In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades of • express various feelings or emotions. Emotions differ
meaning, its components called semes. from feelings.

• It can also be in terms of information theory. A word Evaluative

renders primary (denotative) and additional • charges the word with negative, positive, ironic or other
(connotative) information that is ascribed to it in types of connotation conveying the speaker’s attitude in
contexts. The first kind of information only denotes relation to the object of speech.
a realia existing in an objective plane while the second
kind reflects the emotive plane of the word usage. If a Expressive
word has only meaning it is stylistically neutral.
• either increases or decreases the expressiveness of
the message.

Stylistic

DENOTATIVE MEANING • a word possesses stylistic connotation if it refers to a

certain functional style or a specific layer of vocabulary
The denotative meaning of word/s is a direct specific (such as barbarisms, slang, jargon, etc). stylistic
meaning as from an implied or associated idea. It connotation is usually immediately recognizable.
represents the explicit or referential meaning of a sign.

Examples:
LEXICAL MEANING
• Take a pill to ease your headache.
• Sunshine brightens my day
Lexical - The word lexical is a unit of vocabulary which
Types of Denotative Meaning forms the basic elements of a language. It can be a
single word, part of a word or a full set of words. The
⮚Demonstrative word is derived from the Greek word, lexis, which refers
• It is demonstrative if it makes reference to an actively to a word or a speech.
existing individual thing. This means that besides
denoting a concrete thing, action or notion, the word may
also carry a connotation, an overtone. Lexical Meaning

⮚Significative is defined as the meaning of a base or root

word without considering any prefix or suffix which may
• It is significant if the word evokes a general idea of an be attached. It is the meaning of a base in a paradigm,
object or phenomenon. apart from any meaning it may acquire as part
of a sentence. Lexical meaning is relatively
stable and usually carries a conjunction or the
CONNOTATIVE MEANING schematic arrangement of the inflectional fors of
a verb. Lexical meaning also differs for
• Deals with or reflects the attitude of the interlocutors to grammatical meaning that refers the mind to the
what is being said and to the conditions of relations between words or to some forms of words or
communication. It represents the various social constructions bearing their structural functions in the
overtones, cultural implications, or emotional meanings language – as – a system is defined as the meaning of a
associated with a sign. Refers to emotive, base or root word without considering any prefix or suffix
expressive, evaluative and functional components of which may be attached. It is the meaning of a base in a
human speech. Meaning is the suggesting of a meaning
paradigm, apart from any meaning it may acquire as part
of a sentence.
Examples: Formal Language, Colloquial, and Slang
Examples: The word “Happy”

Prefix: Unhappy – Not happy

C. Modality (Context or Purpose) - Refers to the
Suffix: Happiness – Feeling of joy purpose or context of the language, influencing how the
style is used.
It is relatively stable and usually carries a conjunction or
the schematic arrangement of the inflectional forms of a Examples: The language of memoranda, lectures, jokes,
verb. or advertisements.

Examples: D. Singularity (Individuality) - Refers to the unique style

of specific individuals, often in the context of writers or
The meaning of walk in conjunctions walks/walked speakers.
walking
Examples:

Shakespeare: Known for his poetic and elaborate use of

language, as well as his mastery of iambic pentameter
and metaphor.

STYLISTIC MEANING Hemingway: Known for his concise, direct, and simple
writing style.
Stylistic - Stylistic is about the way words, phrases, and
sentences are crafted to achieve particular effects or to
suit specific contexts. The Style of Dimension of Status - This factor looks at
Stylistic Meaning how style helps distinguish synonymous expressions,
particularly in terms of formality and social context.
Stylistic meaning describes the formal features of texts
for their own sake and in order to show their functional Example:
significance for the interpretation of a text. Informal: "They chucked a stone at the car."
Stylistic Meaning is liable to change as it is affected by Formal: "They threw a rock at the automobile."
extralinguistic factors.

Three Factors influencing Stylistic Meaning

The Style of Discourse or the Medium Discourse - It

refers to whether the language is expressed orally or in ______________________________
writing.
FIFTH TOPIC
Oral Discourse - informal and conversational styles are
common. Linguistic Vs. Extralingual Context

Written Discourse - the style may be more precise, and Language is an essential tool for communication, but it is
the choice of words and sentence structure can reflect not the only factor that affects how people understand
the author's purpose each other. Context plays a significant role in
communication, and it can be classified into two types:
Relatively Temporary Features of Style Linguistic and Extralingual Context.

A. Province (Field of Use) - refers to the domain or area

in which the language is used, such as a specific
subject, field or profession. Linguistic Context

Examples: Law, Science, Advertising, or Business Is the encirclement of a language unit by other language
units in speech. Such encirclement makes the meaning
B. Status (Social Level) - Refers to the social context or of the unit clear and unambiguous.
the relationship between speakers that affects the
language style. This includes information about the grammatical
structure of a sentence, the swords and phrases that
surround a particular word, and the meaning of those people. “real” is likely used metaphorically, meaning
words and phrases in relation to each other. sincere or meaningful.

Linguistic context can be explored from three Macrocontext - is the context of a paragraph in a text.
aspects: deictic, co-text, and collocation.
Example: “I promised to never lose myself in this
Deictic: Deictic expressions are words or phrases industry, so I’ve always been as authentic to you as I can
whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance be. I know what many of you are thinking right now. I’m
and the location of the speaker and listener. well aware of the rumors and speculations going around,
and as hard as it is to put everything into words, I want
Examples: here, there, this, that, how, then. you to hear it straight from me: It’s true that Deej and I
Co-text : helps disambiguate words with multiple have decided to separate ways.”
meanings of polysemantic words. In this example, the macrocontext would be the
Examples of Polysemantic Words; larger context of the entire text that the paragraph is a
part of, such as a book, article, or report. The paragraph
Bank in the following sentences: is discussing the break up issue of the most influential
loveteam in the showbiz industry. The macrocontext is
"I deposited money at the bank."
important for understanding the overall purpose and
"The river bank was muddy." message of the text as a whole.

Collocation refers to the habitual or conventional pairing

of words that tend to occur together in a language.
Megacontext - is the context of a book chapter, a story
Example: we can say heavy rain but not strong rain or the whole book.

Example: “She’s Dating the Gangster” By: Bianca B.

Bernardino
Extralingual Context

An extralingual (situational) context is formed by

extralingual conditions in which communication takes The megacontext would be the entire novel, which
place. includes various storylines, characters, and themes. The
events that occur in each chapter build upon each other,
It refers to the non-linguistic factors that influence the and the characters’ actions and motivations are shaped
meaning and interpretation of messages. by the events that occur throughout the novel. To fully
understand and appreciate the novel, one must consider
the megacontext, which encompasses the entire
Two Factors: narrative and its themes.

Physical context -refers to the tangible and observable

conditions in which communication takes place
Linguistic and extralingual context are both important
Abstract Context - refers to the intangible and less aspects of communication. Linguistic context refers to
observable factors that influence communication. This the words and language used to convey a message,
can include temporal or chronological context, which while extralingual context refers to the non-linguistic
refers to the time and sequence in which events occur. factors that influence communication, such as the
Psychological context is another form of abstract context physical or abstract conditions in which communication
that refers to the emotional and cognitive state of the takes place. In order to effectively communicate, it is
participants in the communication. important to consider both linguistic and extralingual
context. This means paying attention not only to the
words being used, but also to the environment in which
communication takes place and the nonverbal cues
Types of Linguistic Context
being given.
Microcontext - is the context of a single utterance in a
sentence.
________________________________
Example: “What Deej and I had was real.”
SIXTH TOPIC
The microcontext of the word “real” in this sentence is
that it refers to a genuine relationship between two Expressiveness vs. Emotiveness
Expressiveness - in etymological sense is a kind of various means, such as language, facial expressions,
intensification of the utterance (or a part of it). body language, and tone of voice.

It should not be confused with the category of plays a crucial role in communication, as it helps
emotiveness that reveals emotions of the writer or a individuals connect on a deeper level, understand each
speaker. Expressiveness is broader than emotiveness other's emotions, and respond empathetically. In
and cannot be reduced to the latter, which is the part of literature and art, emotiveness can enhance the impact
expressiveness and occupies a predominant position in of a piece by making it more relatable and engaging for
it. expressiveness (noun) the quality of effectively the audience.
conveying a thought or feeling.
Example:
Example:
Compliment - When a friend says, "You did an amazing
From The Odyssey by Homer (translated by Robert job on your presentation!" with a big smile and
Fagles) – When Odysseus speaks to the Cyclops enthusiastic tone, their emotiveness makes you feel
Polyphemus: proud and appreciated.

“Nohbdy—that’s my name. Nohbdy, so my mother and Excitement - When a child exclaims, "I got an A on my
father and all my friends know me.” test!" while jumping up and down with joy, their
emotiveness conveys their excitement and happiness,
From The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri – In the making you feel happy for them too.
Inferno, when Dante first enters Hell:
Surprise - When someone says, "Wow, I can't believe
“Midway upon the journey of our life, I found myself you remembered my birthday!" with wide eyes and a
within a forest dark, For the straightforward path had surprised tone, their emotiveness shows their
been lost.” appreciation and amazement.
From Les Misérables by Victor Hugo – The moment
when Jean Valjean speaks to Cosette:

“To love another person is to see the face of God.”

TAKEAWAYS:
TAKEAWAYS:
Emotiveness refers to the quality of expressing or
Expressiveness is the state of showing what someone evoking emotions.
thinks or feels.
This can be through words, tone, body language, or
Expressiveness can be demonstrated through various even creative expressions like art and music.
means, such as the eyes, voice, actions, or facial
expressions. Clearly convey your feelings.

The goal is to be understood clearly. Emotions are powerful tools for communication and
connection.
The usage of strong language to express one’s feeling,
or to even convey a message but in a concise manner.

_____________________________

SEVENTH TOPIC

Expressive Means, Stylistic Devices, and

Functional Means

Emotiveness

Reveal emotions of the writer or speaker by not directly Expressive Mean - The inherent linguistic resources
manifesting their emotions but by echoing real feeling, within a language that allow for the expression of
designed to awaken co-experience on the part of the emotions, attitudes, or the creation of a specific
reader. atmosphere.

refers to the capacity to express or evoke emotions. It Linguistic elements that enhance expressiveness in
encompasses the ability to convey feelings through speech and writing.
Types of Expressive mean Usage: "I will love thee forevermore"
(The use of thee and forevermore gives
 Phonetic Expressive Means a sense of timelessness and romance).
 Morphological Expressive Means
 Lexical Expressive Means Slang
 Syntactic Expressive Means Examples: cool, chill, dude, fam, lit.
Usage: "That party was lit!" (The word lit
makes the experience sound exciting
and modern).
Phonetic Expressive Means - refer to the linguistic
elements related to sound that enhance the
expressiveness of speech or writing. Syntactic Expressive Means - refer to the way
sentence structure is manipulated to convey specific
meanings, emotions, or effects. By altering how
Intonation - the rise and fall of the voice when
sentences are arranged, writers can create emphasis,
speaking, which can express different emotions
rhythm, or tension in their writing.
Stress - The emphasis placed on certain
syllables or words, affecting meaning or
emotion. Parallelism - "The coffee was too hot, too bitter,
Onomatopoeia - Words that imitate natural too much to bear."
sounds, like buzz, clang, or whisper. Inversion - Instead of "I will never forget this
Rhythm - The pattern of sounds in speech, day," you could say, "Never will I forget this day."
often contributing to the flow or pace of a Ellipsis - "She looked at me, and I... didn’t know
sentence or poem. what to say."
Repetition - And the moon shone, and the
moon glowed, and the moon whispered to the
Morphological Expressive Means - refer to word forms
trees...
that convey specific emotions, characteristics, or
qualities through the use of prefixes, suffixes, and
diminutives. Stylistic Devices - Stylistic devices are deliberate
language techniques used to create a specific artistic or
emotional effect in speech or writing.
Prefixes - are added to the beginning of a word
to change its meaning, often altering the
intensity or quality of the word. "Unhappy" (not They enhance expressiveness, influence the reader's
happy) perception, and add depth to a text.

Major Types of Stylistic Devices

Suffixes - are added to the end of a word to
modify its meaning, such as changing a noun to  Phonetic Devices (Sound-based stylistic tools)
an adjective or adding emotion or intensity.  Lexical Devices (Meaning-based stylistic tools)
"Unbreakable" (can't be broken)  Syntactic Devices (Sentence-structure-based
Diminutives - These are forms of words that stylistic tools)
convey smallness, endearment, or tenderness.
They often add a sense of cuteness or affection. Phonetic Devices
doggie (instead of dog) kitty (instead of cat)
Alliteration - "Peter Piper picked a peck of
Lexical Expressive Means - refer to the use of specific pickled peppers."
words and phrases that convey emotions, cultural Assonance - The rain in Spain stays mainly in
nuances, or attitudes. These means focus on the the plain."
meaning and emotional power of words and how they Rhyme - Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I
shape communication. wonder what you are.

Emotionally Charged Words Lexical Devices

Original: "She was sad." Lexically
Expressive: "She was heartbroken."
Original: "The news was bad." Metaphor - A direct comparison between two
Lexically Expressive: "The news was unrelated things. "Time is a thief."
disastrous." Simile - A comparison using "like" or "as." "She
was as brave as a lion."
Archaisms Personification - Giving human traits to non-
Examples: Thou, thee, forsooth, human objects. "The wind whispered through
betwixt, henceforth. the trees."
Hyperbole - Exaggeration for emphasis. "I’ve
told you a million times!"
 Understatement - Deliberately making
something seem less important. "It’s just a
scratch," (referring to a large wound).
Metonymy - Substituting an attribute for the
thing meant. "The White House issued a
statement." (Instead of saying "The President
and staff.")
Irony - Saying the opposite of what is meant.
"Oh, great! Another traffic jam!"
Synecdoche - A part represents the whole. "All
hands on deck!" (Hands = Sailors)

Syntactic Devices
Parallelism - "Easy come, easy go."
Anaphora - "I have a dream... I have a dream...
I have a dream..."
Epiphora - "I want the best, and we deserve the
best."
Rhetorical Question - "Who doesn’t love a
good story?"
Chiasmus - "Ask not what your country can do
for you, ask what you can do for your country."
Antithesis - "It was the best of times, it was the
worst of times."

Functional Styles in Language - refer to language

tools adapted for specific communicative purposes.
Different styles of language are used in various settings
—scientific writing is different from newspaper articles,
and speeches differ from poetry.

Scientific Style - Logical, precise, and objective

writing for academic or technical purposes.
Official/Business Style - Used in formal
documents, contracts, legal texts.
Publicist Style - Emotional and persuasive
language used in speeches, essays, and
articles.
Newspaper Style - Informing the public,
grabbing attention quickly.
Belles-Lettres Style - Creative and expressive
writing found in poetry, fiction, and literary works.