Electricity and Magnetism

Lecture #1

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Lecture no. 2
Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states that :
‘’An emf is induced in the coil when the magnetic flux across the coil changes with time’’.

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If the
conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced which is called induced current.

Changing the Magnetic Field Intensity in a Closed Loop

Magnetic field intensity in a closed loop

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Mentioned here are a few ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:

• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that :
The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
The flux is the product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux associated with the coil. The formula
of Faraday’s law is given below:

ε= −NΔϕ/Δt

Where,

• ε is the electromotive force

• Φ is the magnetic flux
• N is the number of turns
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and change in the direction of magnetic
fields have opposite signs.

Faraday’s Law Formula

Consider a magnet approaching towards a coil. Consider two-time instances T and T .

1 2

Flux linkage with the coil at the time T is given by

1

T = NΦ
1 1

Flux linkage with the coil at the time T is given by

2

T = NΦ
2 2

Change in the flux linkage is given by

N(Φ – Φ )2 1

Let us consider this change in flux linkage as

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 Φ=Φ –Φ
2 1

Hence, the change in flux linkage is given by

NΦ
The rate of change of flux linkage is given by
NΦ/t
Taking the derivative of the above equation, we get
N dΦ/dt
According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction, we know that the induced emf in a coil
is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. Therefore,

E=Ndϕ/dt
Considering Lenz’s law,

E=−Ndϕ/dt
From the above equation, we can conclude the following

• Increase in the number of turns in the coil increases the induced emf
• Increasing the magnetic field strength increases the induced emf
• Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet, results in the
increased emf

Lecture no. 3
Lenz's law
Lenz's law states that the direction of induced current is always so as to oppose the change which
causes the.

Lenz's law gives the meaning of negative sign in Faraday's law of induction,

-dɸB
ε = -------
dt
which indicates that the induced electromotive force and the rate of change in magnetic flux have
opposite signs.

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Explanation:
Let’s apply Lenz’s law to the system of Figure (a). We designate the “front” of the closed conducting loop
as the region containing the approaching bar magnet, and the “back” of the loop as the other region. As
the north pole of the magnet moves toward the loop, the flux through the loop due to the field of the
magnet increases because the strength of field lines directed from the front to the back of the loop is
increasing. A current is therefore induced in the loop.
By Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced current must be such that its own magnetic field is
directed in a way to oppose the changing flux caused by the field of the approaching magnet. Hence, the
induced current circulates so that its magnetic field lines through the loop are directed from the back to the
front of the loop. By RHR-2, place your thumb pointing against the magnetic field lines, which is toward the
bar magnet. Your fingers wrap in a counterclockwise direction as viewed from the bar magnet.
Alternatively, we can determine the direction of the induced current by treating the current loop as an
electromagnet that opposes the approach of the north pole of the bar magnet. This occurs when the
induced current flows as shown, for then the face of the loop nearer the approaching magnet is also a
north pole.

Part (b) of the figure shows the south pole of a magnet moving toward a conducting loop. In this case, the
flux through the loop due to the field of the magnet increases because the number of field lines directed
from the back to the front of the loop is increasing. To oppose this change, a current is induced in the loop
whose field lines through the loop are directed from the front to the back. Equivalently, we can say that
the current flows in a direction so that the face of the loop nearer the approaching magnet is a south pole,
which then repels the approaching south pole of the magnet. By RHR-2, your thumb points away from the
bar magnet. Your fingers wrap in a clockwise fashion, which is the direction of the induced current.
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Lenz’s law and conservation of energy

To understand this statement, consider a conducting bar moving to the right on two parallel rails in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure below. As the bar moves to the right, the
magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the circuit increases with time because of the area increases.
As a result, the induced current must be directed counter clockwise when the bar moves to the right.
Since the current-carrying bar is moving in the magnetic field, it will experience a magnetic force FB. By
using the right-hand rule, the direction of FB is opposite to that of v, which tends to stop the rods. An
external dragging force must be applied to keep the rod moving in the magnetic field. The dragging force
provided the energy for the induced currents flow. This energy is the source of induced current. Thus the
electromagnetic induction is exactly according to the law of conservation of energy.

If the bar is moving to the left, as in figure (b), the external magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the
loop decreases with time. Because the field is directed into the page, the direction of the induced current
must be clockwise.

Lecture no. 4
INDUCTORS
A capacitor can be used to produce an electric field. Similarly, an inductor can be used to produce a
magnetic field. Therefore, an inductor is used to store energy in the form of a magnetic field. It comprises
of a wire, usually twisted into a coil. If we establish a current i in the windings (turns) of the solenoid we
are taking as our inductor, the current produces a magnetic flux B through the central region of the
inductor.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of
current.
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 L = N ɸB / i (1)
where N is the number of turns. The product N is called the magnetic flux linkage.
B

The inductance L is thus a measure of the flux linkage produced by the inductor per unit of current. The SI
unit of magnetic flux is the tesla–square meter, the SI unit of inductance is the tesla–square meter per
ampere (Tm2/A) called henry (H) after American physicist Joseph Henry.

1Henry = Tm2 A/ (2)

Inductance of a Solenoid

Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area “A”. Consider a length “l” near the middle of this
solenoid. The flux linkage through the solenoid NɸB = nl (BA)

Where: n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid and B is the magnitude of the magnetic
field within the solenoid. The magnitude of magnetic field produced by solenoid B = μoni

So, equation 1 becomes

L =nl BA /i 3
L = n l μo n i A /i 4

L = n2 l μ o A 5
Thus, the inductance per unit length near the centre of a long solenoid is ( solenoid ).

L / l = n2 μo A 6
Inductance depends only on the geometry of the device.
• Square of the number of turns per unit length
• Area of the coil
• Permeability of free space( ) o

SELF-INDUCTION
An induced emf L appears in any coil in which the current is changing. If the current in a coil is changed by
varying the contact position on a variable resistor, a self-induced emfL will appear in the coil while the
current is changing. This process is called self-induction, and the emfL that appears is called a self-
induced emfL. It obeys Faraday’s law of induction just as other induced emfs do.
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For any inductor flux linkage through the coil is Li = NɸB
d(NɸB)
(1)
According to Faradays Law dt

εL = -L di (2)
dt
The equation 2 is called equation of self-induction.

Thus, in any inductor (such as a coil, a solenoid, or a toroid) a self-induced emf appears whenever the
current changes with time.

You can find the direction of a self-induced emfL from Lenz’s law. The minus sign in Eq. 2 indicates that
the self-induced emfL has the orientation such that it opposes the change in current i.
Suppose that, as in Fig. A, we set up a current i in a coil and current is increasing with time at a rate di/dt.
According to Lenz’s law, this increase in the current is the “change” that the self-induction must oppose.
For such opposition to occur, a self-induced emf must appear in the coil, pointing so as to oppose the
increase in the current.

If the current is decreasing with time, as in Fig.B, the self-induced emf must point in a direction that tends
to oppose the decrease in the current. In both cases, the emf attempts to maintain the initial condition.

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 2represents the principle of conservation of energy for RL circuits, the middle term must represent the rate
The right most term in Eq. 2 represents the rate at which energy appears as thermal energy in the

Energy that is delivered to the circuit and stored in the magnetic field of the inductor. Because Eq.
(1)

dU /dt at which magnetic potential energy U is stored in the magnetic field.

This is the differential equation that describes the growth of current in this

B
circuit.
the loopThi
ruleequation
and thatisthe loop rule is an expression of the principle of
conservation
sing of energy
-loop circuits. If bot forequati1b i.
weside

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le multiply h of on y
(2)
Equati2 gives the terpretati
n terms of the workbattery and the
on
energyphysical in on i done by the resulting
transfers:
1. If a differential amount
d passes
of throughery theemfin d, the
work on it inEd
charge
does q batt
. The
the d )/d)t.does
rate at whichoftheEbattery
time battery
Thus, the

B
amount
side work
of represents qthe rateisat(E
which the emf device t left
qt of the t
delivers

resistor.
Eq. 2 energy to the res circui .

3.
2.
 which represents the total energy stored by an inductor L carrying a current i.

Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A carrying current i having a length l near the middle of
solenoid. The volume associated with this length is Al. The energy UB stored by the length l of the
solenoid must lie entirely within this volume because the magnetic field outside such a solenoid is
approximately zero. Moreover, the stored energy must be uniformly distributed within the solenoid
because the magnetic field is uniform everywhere inside. Thus, the energy stored per unit volume of the
field.

Here L is the inductance of length l of the solenoid. Substituting for L/l

where n is the number of turns per unit length. Putting the values of B of solenoid

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 1
𝜇𝐵 𝐵2
= 𝑜
2 𝜇

Equation 7 gives the energy density stored at any point where the magnitude of the magnetic field is B.
Even though we derived it by considering the special case of a solenoid, but it holds for all magnetic
fields, no matter how they are generated.

Lecture no.5
Mutual Induction
If two coils are close together, and a steady current i passing in one coil will set up a magnetic flux
through the other coil. If we change i with time, then according to Faraday’s law an emf appears in the
second coil; we called this process as mutual induction.

Figure shows two circular closed coils near each other with the variable resistor set at a
particular resistance R, the battery produces a steady current i1 in coil 1. This current creates
a magnetic field represented by the lines of B1 in the figure. Coil 2 is connected to a sensitive
meter but contains no battery; a magnetic flux f21 links the N2 turns of coil 2. We define the
mutual inductance M21 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 as:

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The right side of this equation is, according to Faraday’s law, just the magnitude of the emf2 appearing in
coil 2 due to the changing current in coil 1. Thus, with a minus sign to indicate the direction.

Let us now interchange the roles of coils 1 and 2,as in Fig.b, that is, we set up a current i2 in coil 2 by
means of a battery, and this produces a magnetic flux 12 that links coil 1. If we change i2 with time by
varying R, we then have, by the argument given above.

Thus, we see that the emf induced in either coil is proportional to the rate of change of current in the other
coil. The proportionality constants M21 and M12 seem to be different. We assert, without proof, that they
are in fact the same so that no subscripts are needed.

We can write as:

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 RL Circuits
rise (or fall) of the current occurs if we introduce an emf ε into (or remove it from) a single-loop circuit
containing a resistor R and an inductor L. When the switch S in Fig. 30-15 is closed on a, for example,
the current in the resistor starts to rise. If the inductor were not present, the current would rise rapidly
to a steady value ε / R. Because of the inductor, however, a self-induced emf εL appears in the circuit;
from Lenz's law, this emf opposes the rise of the current, which means that it opposes the battery
emf in polarity. Thus, the current in the resistor responds to the difference between two emfs, a
constant due to the battery and a variable ( = — L di/dt) due to self-induction. As long as is
present, the current will be less than ε/R.

Fig. 30-15 An RL circuit. When switch S is closed on a, the current rises and
approaches a limiting value ε/R.

As time goes on, the rate at which the current increases become less rapid and the magnitude of the
self-induced emf, which is proportional to di/dt, becomes smaller. Thus, the current in the circuit
approaches ε/R. asymptotically.

We can generalize these results as follows:

Initially, an inductor acts to oppose changes in the current through it. A long time later, it acts
like ordinary connecting wire.

Now let us analyze the situation quantitatively. With the switch S in Fig. 30-15 thrown to a, the circuit is
equivalent to that of Fig. 30-16. Let us apply the loop rule, starting at point x in this figure and moving
clockwise around the loop along with current i.
1. Resistor. Because we move through the resistor in the direction of current i, the electric potential
decreases by iR. Thus, as we move from point x to point y, we encounter a potential change of
—iR.

2. Inductor. Because current i is changing, there is a self-induced emf

in the inductor. The magnitude
of is given by Eq. 30-35 as L di l dt. The direction of is upward in Fig. 30-16 because current
i is downward through the inductor and increasing. Thus, as we move from point y to point z,
opposite the direction of , we encounter a potential change of —L di l dt.
3. Battery. As we move from point z back to starting point x, we encounter a potential change of +
due to the battery's emf.
Thus, the loop rule gives us
-iR- L di/dt + ε = 0
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 L di/dt + Ri = ε (RL circuit). (30-39)

Equation 30-39 is a differential equation involving the variable i and its first derivative di/dt. To solve it,
we seek the function i(t) such that when i(t) and its first derivative are substituted in Eq. 30-39, the
equation is satisfied and the initial condition i(0) = 0 is satisfied.
Equation 30-39 and its initial condition are of exactly the form of Eq. 27-32 for an RC circuit, with i
replacing q, L replacing R, and R replacing I/C. The solution of Eq. 30-39 must then be of exactly the
form of Eq. 27-33 with the same replacements That solution is
(30-40)
i = (ε/R) (1 — e—Rt / L
which we can rewrite as
(30-41)

(rise of current).

Here TL, the inductive time constant, is given by

TL = L/R (time constant). (30-42)
Let's examine Eq. 30-41 for just after the switch is closed (at time t = 0) and for a time long after
the switch is closed (t —> ∞). If we substitute t = 0 into Eq. 30-41, the exponential becomes e-0 =
1. Thus, Eq. 30-41 tells us that the current is initially i = 0, as we expected. Next, if we let t go to ∞,
then the exponential goes to e-∞ = 0. Thus, Eq. 30-41 tells us that the current goes to its
equilibrium value of ε/R. .
We can also examine the potential differences in the circuit. For example, Fig. 30-17 shows how the
potential differences VR(= iR) across the resistor and

Fig. 30-16 ThecircuitofF@30-1S with the switch closed on a. We apply the loop
rule for the circuit clockwise, starting at x.

VL ( = L di/dt) across the inductor vary with time for particular values of ε, L, and R. Compare this figure
carefully with the corresponding figure for an RC circuit (Fig. 27-16).
To show that the quantity TL ( = L/R) has the dimension of time, we convert from hennies per ohm as
follows:

The first quantity in parentheses is a conversion factor based on Eq. 30-35, and the second one is a
conversion factor based on the relation V = iR.
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The physical significance of the time constant follows from Eq. 30-41. If we put t = TL = L/R in this
equation, it reduces to

i = ε/R(1 — e-1) = 0.63 ε/R. (30-43)

Thus, the time constant is the time it takes the current in the circuit to reach about 63% of its final
equilibrium value ε/R. Since the potential difference VR across the resistor is proportional to the current i, a
graph of the increasing current versus time has the same shape as that of VR in Fig. 30-17a.
If the switch S in Fig. 30-15 is closed on a long enough for the equilibrium current ε/R. to be established
and then is thrown to b, the effect will be to remove the battery from the circuit. (The connection to b must
actually be made an instant before the connection to a is broken. A switch that does this is called a make-
before-break switch.) With the battery gone, the current through the resistor will decrease. However, it
cannot drop immediately to zero but must decay to zero over time. The differential equation that governs
the decay can be found by putting ε = 0 in Eq. 30-39:
di
(30-44)

By analogy with Eqs. 27-38 and 27-39, the solution of this differential equation that satisfies the initial
condition i(0) = i0 = ε/R. is

i = ε/R.e--t / TL = i0 e--t / TL (decay of current). (30-45)

We see that both current rise (Eq. 30-41) and current decay (Eq. 30-45) in an RL circuit are governed by
the same inductive time constant, TL .We have used i0 in Eq. 30-45 to represent the current at time t = 0.
In our case that happened to be ε/R, but it could be any other initial value.

Fig. 30-17 variation with time of (a) VR, the potential difference across
the resistor in the circuit of Fig. 30-16, and (b) VL, the potential difference across the inductor in that circuit. The small triangles represent successive intervals of one

inductive time constant TL; = L/R. The figure is plotted for R 2000 4.0 H, and 10 v

VL (= L di/dt) across the inductor vary with time for particular values of ε, L, and R. Compare this figure
carefully with the corresponding figure for an RC circuit (Fig. 27-16).
To show that the quantity TL (= L/R) has the dimension of time, we convert from hennies per ohm as
follows:

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The first quantity in parentheses is a conversion factor based on Eq. 30-35, and the second one is a
conversion factor based on the relation V = iR.
The physical significance of the time constant follows from Eq. 30-41. If we put t = TL = L/R in this
equation, it reduces to

i = ε/R(1 — e-1) = 0.63 ε/R. (30-43)

Thus, the time constant TL is the time it takes the current in the circuit to reach about 63% of its final
equilibrium value ε/R. Since the potential difference VR across the resistor is proportional to the current i,
a graph of the increasing current versus time has the same shape as that of VR in Fig. 30-17a.
If the switch S in Fig. 30-15 is closed on a long enough for the equilibrium current ε/R to be established
and then is thrown to b, the effect will be to remove the battery from the circuit. (The connection to b
must actually be made an instant before the connection to a is broken. A switch that does this is called a
make-before-break switch.) With the battery gone, the current through the resistor will decrease.
However, it cannot drop immediately to zero but must decay to zero over time. The differential equation
that governs the decay can be found by putting ε = 0 in Eq. 30-39:
di
(30-44)

By analogy with Eqs. 27-38 and 27-39, the solution of this differential equation that satisfies the initial
condition i(0) = i0 = ε/R. is

i = ε/R.e--t / TL = i0 e--t / TL (decay of current). (30-45)

We see that both current rise (Eq. 30-41) and current decay (Eq. 30-45) in an RL circuit are governed by
the same inductive time constant, TL.
We have used i0 in Eq. 30-45 to represent the current at time t = 0. In our case that happened to be ε/R,
but it could be any other initial value.

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