EEE 401: COMMUNICATION

PRINCIPLES
Instructor: Usman Mohammed
AMPLITUDE (LINEAR) MODULATION
 Modulated Communication Systems
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Amplitude Modulation
 Generation of Amplitude Modulated Wave

15/12/2022 2
 MODULATED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
 In very many situations it is necessary to translate the baseband signal (without distorting its information
content) to a frequency band centered at a frequency 𝑓𝑐 that is well above 0 Hz.

 A communication system in which the information signal undergoes this modulation process before being
placed into the transmission medium is referred to as a modulated communication system.

 There are numerous examples of modulated systems.

 All satellite communication systems.

 Mobile communication systems.

 Radio and TV broadcast systems.

 Radio relay systems.

 Optical communication systems.

15/12/2022 3
Formally, we define modulation as the process of imposing the variations (or information) in a lower-
frequency electrical signal (called the modulating or baseband or message signal) onto a higher
frequency signal (called the carrier).

 The carrier signal is usually a sinusoidal signal of frequency 𝑓𝑐 .

 It effectively gives the message signal a ‘ride’ through the transmission medium because, for
several reasons, it is impossible or undesirable for the message signal to make the ‘journey’ on
its own.

Role of modulation

 There are several reasons why modulation is extensively used in modern communication

1.  Modulation is used to obtain a more efficient exploitation of the transmission medium by

accommodating more than one user in the same medium at the same time (by using Frequency-
Division Multiplexing (FDM)).
15/12/2022 4
  In most cases, the bandwidth that is available in the medium is much larger than what is required by one
user or message signal. For example,
 The bandwidth available on a coaxial cable is more than 10,000 times the bandwidth of
one telephone speech channel.
 The bandwidth of an optical fibre medium exceeds that of an analogue TV signal by a
factor of up to one million; and
 The radio spectrum is much wider than the bandwidth required by one radio station for its
broadcasts.
 Modulation allows the implementation of FDM in which each user’s signal is placed in a separate
frequency band by modulating an appropriate carrier.

2.  Modulation allows us to select a frequency that is high enough to be efficiently radiated by an antenna
in radio systems.

3.  The use of modulation to transmit at higher frequencies also provides a further important advantage. It
allows us to exploit the higher bandwidths available at the top end of the radio spectrum in order to
accommodate more users or to transmit signals of large bandwidth.

15/12/2022 5
4.  Another important function of modulation is that it allows us to transmit at a frequency that is best
suited to the transmission medium.

 The behaviour of all practical transmission media is frequency dependent.

5.  The only way to use optical fibre medium for information transmission is to modulate an optical carrier
signal with the baseband information signal.

Types of modulation

 There are three basic methods of modulation depending on which parameter of the carrier signal is varied
(or modulated) by the message signal.

 Consider the general expression for a sinusoidal carrier signal

15/12/2022 6
 There are three parameters of the carrier, which may be varied in step with the message signal. The
(unmodulated) carrier signal 𝑣𝑐 𝑡 has a constant amplitude 𝐴𝑐 , a constant frequency 𝑓𝑐 , and a constant
initial phase 𝜙.

 Varying the amplitude according to the variations of the message signal, while maintaining the other
parameters constant, gives what is known as amplitude modulation (AM).

 Frequency modulation is obtained by varying the frequency 𝑓𝑐 of a constant-amplitude carrier.

 Phase modulation is the result of varying only the phase 𝜙 of the carrier signal.

 An analogue modulating signal will cause a continuous variation of the carrier parameter, the precise value
of the varied parameter being significant always.

 It is obvious that this is then an analogue modulation and the resulting system is an analogue
modulated communication system.

15/12/2022 7
 A digital modulating signal (consisting of a string of binary 1’s and 0’s) will, on the other hand, cause the
carrier parameter to change (or shift) in discrete steps.

 Information is then conveyed, not in the continuous precise value of the parameter but rather in the
interval of the parameter value at discrete decision (or sampling) instants.

 This is therefore digital modulation and the resulting system is a digital modulated communication
system having all the advantages of digital communication.

 In this case, the three modulation methods are given the special names amplitude shift keying
(ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK) to emphasize that the
parameters are varied in discrete steps.
 The number of steps of the parameter generally determines the complexity of the digital
modulation scheme.
 The simplest situation, and the one most robust to noise, is binary modulation (or binary shift keying)
where the carrier parameter can take on one of two values (or steps).
 A combination of amplitude and phase shift keying (APSK) is called quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM) and is often used to increase the phase difference between symbol states.
15/12/2022 8
 In summary:

 The primary purpose of modulation in a communication system is to generate a modulated signal

which is well suited to the characteristics of transmission medium. The need for modulation can be
summarized as follows:

 To reduce the antenna height.

 To overcome hardware system limitations.
 To reduce the interference, noise, and distortions made when we transmit the signals with
nearly same frequency in the audio frequency range (20-20,000) Hz.
 To multiplex to get more number of signals.
 To assign channel frequency.
 To narrow band the signal.
 To reduce the complexity of the transmission system.
 To increase the bandwidth of the signal.

15/12/2022 9
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Electromagnetic radiation is the means for many of our interactions with the world: light allows us to see;
radio waves give us TV and radio; microwaves are used in radar communications; X-rays allow glimpses of
our internal organs; and gamma rays let us eavesdrop on exploding stars thousands of light-years away.

 Electromagnetic radiation is the messenger, or the signal from sender to receiver.

 The sender could be a TV station, a star, or the burner on a stove. The receiver could be a TV set,
an eye, or an X-ray film.

 In each case, the sender gives off or reflects some kind of electromagnetic radiation.

 All these different kinds of electromagnetic radiation actually differ only in a single property — their
wavelength.

 When electromagnetic radiation is spread out according to its wavelength, the result is a spectrum.

15/12/2022 10
 The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of electromagnetic radiation and
their respective wavelengths and energies.

 This frequency range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each
frequency band are called by different names.

 Beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high frequency (short
wavelength) end.

Electromagnetic Spectrum.

15/12/2022 11
15/12/2022 12
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
 The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

 Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude
of the signal containing information, at each instant.

15/12/2022 13
 The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the carrier wave,
which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is the resultant modulated
wave.

 It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected with an
imaginary line.

 This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the
carrier wave is called as Envelope.

 It is the same as that of the message signal.

Mathematical Expressions

 Let the modulating signal be,

𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
And the carrier signal be,
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
15/12/2022 14
 where 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑐 are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal, respectively, and 𝑓𝑚
and 𝑓𝑐 are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal, respectively.

 Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave will be

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

Modulation Index of AM
 A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is called
as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth.

 It states the level of modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.

 Rearranging the last equation,

𝐴𝑚
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐴𝑐
15/12/2022 15
 where, 𝜇 is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑐 . Mathematically, we can write it as

𝐴𝑚 2 𝐴𝑐 +𝐴𝑚 −2(𝐴𝑐 −𝐴𝑚 ) max 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 −min(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)

𝜇= = =
𝐴𝑐 2 𝐴𝑐 +𝐴𝑚 +2(𝐴𝑐 −𝐴𝑚 ) max 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 +min(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)

 Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the amplitudes of
the message and carrier signals are known.

 The modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of
Modulation. We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index value with
100.

For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the percentage of
modulation should be 100%.

Baseband signal is preserved in the envelop of AM signal if and only if: max ( 𝐴𝑚 ) ≤ 𝐴𝑐

15/12/2022 16
 For instance, if this value is less than 1, say, the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated output would
look like the following Figure.

It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an under-modulated wave.

 If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, say, 1.5, then the wave will be an over-modulated
wave. It would look like the following figure.

15/12/2022 17
 As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180° phase reversal, which
causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted.

 Such an over-modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Example: Find the modulation index and percentage modulation of the signal shown below.

Solution:

15/12/2022 18
Power Content in AM Wave

 The equation of the AM wave is

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

 Using trigonometric identity, this equation can be written as:

 It is observed from the expression of AM wave that the amplitude of the carrier component of AM wave is
same as that of unmodulated carrier.

 Along with carrier in AM wave, we have two sidebands. It means that modulated wave bears more power
as compared to unmodulated carrier.

 However, modulation index is responsible for the amplitudes of two sidebands.

15/12/2022 19
 Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components.

 We know that the standard formula for power of cosine signal is

2
𝑣𝑚
2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑃= =
𝑅 𝑅
where 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 is the rms value of the cosine signal, 𝑣𝑚 is the peak value of the cosine signal, and 𝑅 is the
resistance in which power is dissipated.

 First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sidebands one by one.

 Carrier power

15/12/2022 20
 Upper sideband power

 Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

 Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.

15/12/2022 21
 We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the
modulation index are known.

If the modulation index 𝜇 = 1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power. So, the
power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.

This is an important fact, because it is the maximum power that relevant amplifier must be capable of
handling without distortion.

Current Calculation in AM

 It is often comfortable to calculate current than power.

 In such cases modulation index can be calculated from the modulated and unmodulated currents in
the transmitter.

15/12/2022 22
 Assume 𝐼𝑐 be the rms value of the unmodulated current and 𝐼𝑡 the total rms current after modulation, of
an AM transmitter and 𝑅 the resistance through which current flows.

 We can write the power as

1
2
𝑃𝑡 𝜇 2
𝐼𝑡2 𝑅 2
𝜇 𝐼𝑡2 2
𝜇 𝜇 2
= 1+ = = 1+ → = 1+ → 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 +
𝑃𝑐 2 𝐼𝑐2 𝑅 2 𝐼𝑐2 2 2

Modulation by Many Cosine Waves (Signals)

 Generally, we modulate a carrier by several cosine waves simultaneously.

 Now here we have to find out the resulting power conditions.

 In the above process we have to find out the total value of modulation index and then substitute the value
of 𝜇 into the power equation to calculate total power.

15/12/2022 23
 Modulation index in such a case can be found out in two different ways.

1. Let 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 ⋯ be the simultaneous modulation amplitudes, then the total modulating amplitude 𝐴𝑡
will be the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual amplitude.

𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 𝐴23 ⋯

Dividing both sides by 𝐴𝑐 we get

𝐴𝑡 𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 𝐴23 ⋯ 𝐴12 𝐴22 𝐴23

= = 𝜇𝑡 = + + ⋯= 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 + 𝜇32 ⋯
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐

𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 + 𝜇32 ⋯

15/12/2022 24
 2. Another way to represent the same is squaring the last equation on both sides. We get

𝜇𝑡2 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 + 𝜇32 ⋯

Here we have to note that this total modulation should not exceed the value ‘1’ or distortion will occur
as over modulation by a single cosine wave.

Example: A 900-watt carrier is modulated to the depth of 80 percent. Calculate the total power in the
modulated wave. Assume modulating signal to be sinusoidal.

Solution: We know that

𝑃𝑡 𝜇2 𝑃𝑡 0.82 0.82
= 1+ = = 1+ → 𝑃𝑡 = 900 1 + = 1188 𝑊
𝑃𝑐 2 900 2 2

15/12/2022 25
Examples: A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 5 kW power when the modulation percentage is 60%.
How much is the carrier power?
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 10A when only carrier is sent but it increases to 12A
when a carrier is modulated by a single tone sinusoid. Find the percentage of modulation. Find
antenna current when depth of modulation changes to 0.7.

A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier unmodulated, and 10.125 kW when carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If say two more sine waves,
corresponding to 40% and 60% modulations are transmitted simultaneously, determine the total
radiated power.

Represent the AM vectorially. (Assignment but not a graded assignment)

A multiplication operation is carried out on two signals 𝑢 𝑡 and 𝑣 𝑡 . 𝑢 𝑡 = 2 cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 +

cos 2𝜋 ∙ 2𝑓1 𝑡 and 𝑣 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡 + 2 cos 2𝜋 ∙ 2𝑓2 𝑡 . How is the resultant’s signal
amplitude-frequency characteristics going to be? Assume that
a. 𝑓2 > 2𝑓1 but not a harmonic of 𝑓1
b. 𝑓2 = 2𝑓1 . (Assignment but not a graded assignment)

15/12/2022 26
Examples: Determine the power content of each of the sidebands and of the carrier of an AM signal that
has a percent modulation of 80% and contains 1000 W of total power.

An AM signal contains a total 10 kW of power. Calculate the power being transmitted at the
carrier frequency and at each of the sidebands when the percentage modulation is 100%.

A certain AM transmitter is coupled to an antenna. The input power to the antenna is measured
through monitoring the antenna current. With no modulation, the current is 10 A. With
modulation the current rises to 13 A. Determine the depth of modulation explaining the
significance of the formula used.

15/12/2022 27
 From the following equation (AM wave equation)

we can conclude that the BW required for AM signal is twice that of the modulating signal or we can say
that in AM broadcasting service the BW required is double the highest modulating frequency.

The biggest merit of AM carrier signal is the simplicity with which the baseband signal can be recovered.

 The recovery can the done with the help of a simple circuit shown below.

A demodulator for an AM signal.

Input and output voltage waveform across capacitor C.
15/12/2022 28
 Now let us see the working of the circuit. Also assume diode as ideal one i.e. zero resistance.

 Let the input be of fixed amplitude and say resistor ‘𝑅’ is not present in the circuit.

 Then the capacitor charges to peak voltage and does not allow the diode to conduct further.

 Now suppose the input amplitude is increased to a new level, then the capacitor again charges to new
level because diode again becomes forward biased.

 In order to allow the capacitor voltage to follow the carrier’s peak when the carrier amplitude is
decreasing, it is necessary to include a resistance ‘𝑅’ in the circuitry, so that the capacitor may
discharge through it.

 By adding resistance ‘𝑅’ in the circuitry, we achieve capacitor waveform as shown in the previous
Figure. The time constant 𝑅𝐶 is selected so that the change in 𝑣𝐶 between cycles is at least equal to
the decrease in carrier amplitude between cycles.

15/12/2022 29
 In practice, the time interval between carrier cycles is extremely small in comparison with the time required
for the envelope to make a sizeable change.

 Since, the carrier frequency is ordinarily quiet higher than the highest frequency of modulating signal, the
sawtooth distortion of the envelop waveform is very easily removed by a filter.

15/12/2022 30
 GENERATION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE
 There is a variety of modulator circuits employing tubes or solid-state devices to produce amplitude
modulated waves.

 All these circuits may, however, be grouped as:

1. Square Law or Nonlinear Modulator Circuits.

2. Linear Modulator Circuits.

 Another way of grouping is also there. This is based upon the power level at which modulation is carried
out and may be termed:

1. Low Level Modulation (LLM).

2. High Level Modulation (HLM).

15/12/2022 31
 The power level at which modulation is carried out is low in LLM and high in HLM.

 Also it is worthwhile to note that, in general, square law modulators are low level modulators while linear
modulators are high level modulators.

 Now we will discuss the above AM generation techniques in a bit detail.

Low Level Modulation

 The Figure below shows the block diagram for LLM. Here we are doing modulation at low level. Because
of this the output power is also very low.

Low level AM modulation.

15/12/2022 32
 Therefore, the power amplifiers are required to boost the amplitude modulated signals up to the desired
output level.

 After this the AM signal (with carrier and two sidebands) is applied to a wideband power amplifier.

 A wideband power amplifier is used to preserve the sidebands of modulated signal.

 AM systems doing modulation at low power levels are called low level amplitude modulation transmitters.

 Square-Law diode and switching modulations are examples of low level modulation.

 The next Figure shows a more detailed block diagram of a low-level AM modulation.

15/12/2022 33
 LLM Block Diagram

 There are two signal paths in the modulation, audio frequency (AF) and radio frequency (RF).

 The RF signal is created in the RF carrier oscillator. At test point A the oscillator’s output signal is
present. The output of the carrier oscillator is a fairly small AC voltage, perhaps 200 to 400 mV
rms.

15/12/2022 34
 The oscillator is a critical stage in any modulation. It must produce an accurate and steady frequency.

 Two circuit techniques are commonly used to stabilize the oscillator, buffering and voltage
regulation.

 An oscillator is a little like an engine. If the load on the engine is increased, the engine will respond by
slowing down. An oscillator acts in a very similar fashion.

 If the current drawn from the oscillator’s output is increased or decreased, the oscillator may speed
up or slow down slightly. We would say that its frequency has been pulled.

 The buffer amplifier is a relatively low-gain amplifier that follows the oscillator. It has a constant input
impedance (resistance). Therefore, the it always draws the same amount of current from the oscillator.
This helps to prevent "pulling" of the oscillator frequency.

 The buffer amplifier is needed because of what's happening "downstream" of the oscillator. Right
after this stage is the modulator.

15/12/2022 35
  Because the modulator is a nonlinear amplifier, it may not have a constant input resistance --
especially when information is passing into it.

 But since there is a buffer amplifier between the oscillator and modulator, the oscillator sees a
steady load resistance, regardless of what the modulator stage is doing.

 The stabilized RF carrier signal feeds one input of the modulator stage.

 The modulator is a variable-gain (nonlinear) amplifier.

 To work, it must have an RF carrier signal and an AF information signal.

 In a low-level modulation, the power levels are low in the oscillator, buffer, and modulator stages;
typically, the modulator output is around 10 mW (700 mV rms into 50 ohms) or less.

15/12/2022 36
 In order for the modulator to function, it needs an information signal.

 A microphone is one way of developing the intelligence signal, however, it only produces a few
millivolts of signal. This simply isn't enough to operate the modulator, so a voltage amplifier is used
to boost the microphone's signal.

 Notice that the AF amplifier in the modulation is only providing a voltage gain, and not necessarily a
current gain for the microphone's signal. The power levels are quite small at the output of this
amplifier; a few mW at best.

 At test point D the modulator has created an AM signal by impressing the information signal from test point
C onto the stabilized carrier signal from test point B at the buffer amplifier output.

 This signal (test point D) is a complete AM signal, but has only a few milliwatts of power.

 The RF power amplifier is normally built with several stages. These stages increase both the voltage
and current of the AM signal. We say that power amplification occurs when a circuit provides a
current gain.
15/12/2022 37
  In order to accurately amplify the tiny AM signal from the modulator, the RF power amplifier stages
must be linear.

 The antenna coupler is usually part of the last or final RF power amplifier, and as such, is not really a
separate active stage. It performs no amplification, and has no active devices. It performs two important
jobs: Impedance matching and filtering.

 The antenna coupler also acts as a low-pass filter. This filtering reduces the amplitude of harmonic
energies that may be present in the power amplifier’s output.

 All amplifiers generate harmonic distortion, even "linear" ones.

 Because a low-pass filter passes the fundamental frequency and rejects the harmonics, we say that
harmonic attenuation has taken place. (The word attenuate means “to weaken.”)

15/12/2022 38
 High Level Modulation

 Here we are doing modulation at high level. Because of this the output power is also very high.

 The high-level modulation below is very similar to the low-level unit.

HLM Block Diagram

15/12/2022 39
 The RF section begins just like the low-level modulation; there is an oscillator and buffer amplifier.

 The difference in the high level modulation is where the modulation takes place.

 Instead of adding modulation immediately after buffering, this type of modulation amplifies the
unmodulated RF carrier signal first. Thus, the signals at points A, B, and D all look like unmodulated
RF carrier waves.
 The only difference is that they become bigger in voltage and current as they approach
test point D.
 The modulation process in a high-level transmitter takes place in the last or final power amplifier. Because
of this, an additional audio amplifier section is needed.

 In order to modulate an amplifier that is running at power levels of several watts (or more),
comparable power levels of information are required. Thus, an audio power amplifier is required.

15/12/2022 40
 The final power amplifier does double-duty in a high-level modulation.

 First, it provides power gain for the RF carrier signal, just like the RF power amplifier did in the
low-level modulation.

 In addition to providing power gain, the final PA also performs the task of modulation.

Generation of AM Single Side Band (SSB) using Phase Shift Method

Generation of AM Single Side Band (SSB)

using Phase Shift Method

15/12/2022 41
 This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −90° phase shifters, one local oscillator and
one summer block.

 The product modulator produces an output, which is the product of two inputs. The −𝟗𝟎° phase shifter
produces an output, which has a phase lag of −90° with respect to the input.

 The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output, which is
either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.

 The modulating signal 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 and the carrier signal 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 are directly
applied as inputs to the upper product modulator.
 So, the upper product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

 The output of upper product modulator is

15/12/2022 42
 The modulating signal 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 and the carrier signal 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 are phase
shifted by −90° before applying as inputs to the lower product modulator.

 So, the lower product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

 The output of lower product modulator is

15/12/2022 43
 Add 𝑠1 𝑡 and 𝑠2 𝑡 in order to get the SSB Suppressed-Carrier (SC) modulated wave 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠1 𝑡 +
𝑠2 𝑡 having a lower sideband.

15/12/2022 44