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Java
Methods
A & AB
Object-Oriented Programming
and
Data Structures

Maria Litvin
Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts

Gary Litvin
Skylight Software, Inc.

Skylight Publishing
Andover, Massachusetts
Skylight Publishing
9 Bartlet Street, Suite 70
Andover, MA 01810

web: http://www.skylit.com
e-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]

Copyright © 2006 by Maria Litvin, Gary Litvin, and

Skylight Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the authors and Skylight Publishing.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005910949

ISBN 978-0-9727055-7-8

The names of commercially available software and products mentioned in this book are
used for identification purposes only and may be trademarks or registered trademarks
owned by corporations and other commercial entities. Skylight Publishing and the authors
have no affiliation with and disclaim any sponsorship or endorsement by any of these
products’ manufacturers or trademarks’ owners.

Sun, Sun Microsystems, Java, and Java logos are trademarks or registered trademarks of
Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States and other countries.

SCRABBLE® is the registered trademark of HASBRO in the United States and Canada and
of J.W. Spear and Sons, PLC, a subsidiary of Mattel, Inc., outside the United States and
Canada.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 09 08 07 06

Printed in the United States of America

To Marg and Aaron
 Brief Contents

Preface
How to Use This Book
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Hardware, Software, and the Internet
Chapter 2 An Introduction to Software Development
Chapter 3 Objects and Classes
Chapter 4 Algorithms
Chapter 5 Java Syntax and Style
Chapter 6 Data Types, Variables, and Arithmetic
Chapter 7 Boolean Expressions and if-else Statements
Chapter 8 Iterative Statements: while, for, do–while
Chapter 9 Implementing Classes and Using Objects
Chapter 10 Strings
Chapter 11 Class Hierarchies and Interfaces
Chapter 12 Arrays and ArrayLists
Chapter 13 Searching and Sorting
Chapter 14 Streams and Files
Chapter 15 Graphics
Chapter 16 GUI Components and Events
Chapter 17 Mouse, Keyboard, Sounds, and Images
Chapter 18 Big-O Analysis of Algorithms
Chapter 19 The Java Collections Framework
Chapter 20 Linked Lists
Chapter 21 Stacks and Queues
Continued

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

Chapter 22 Recursion Revisited
Chapter 23 Binary Trees
Chapter 24 Lookup Tables and Hashing
Chapter 25 Priority Queues
Chapter 26 Design Patterns
Appendix A The 17 Bits of Style
Appendix B Common Syntax Error Messages
Appendix C HTML Tutorial
Appendix D GUI Examples Index
Appendix E The EasyReader, EasyWriter, EasySound, EasyDate,
and EasyFormat Classes
Appendix F Computing in Context: Responsible, Ethical, and Effective
Computer Use
Index

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

 Contents

Preface xvii

How to Use This Book xxi

Chapter 1. An Introduction to Hardware, Software, and the Internet 1

1.1 Prologue
1.2 Hardware Overview
1.2.1 The CPU
1.2.2 Memory
1.2.3 Secondary Storage Devices
1.2.4 Input and Output Devices
1.3 Software Overview
1.4 Representation of Information in Computer Memory
1.4.1 Numbers
1.4.2 Characters
1.5 The Internet
1.6 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 2. An Introduction to Software Development

2.1 Prologue
2.2 Compilers and Interpreters
2.3 Software Components and Packages
2.4 Lab: Three Ways to Say Hello
2.5 Object-Oriented Programming
2.6 Lab: More Ways to Say Hello
2.7 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

viii CONTENTS

Chapter 3. Objects and Classes

3.1 Prologue
3.2 Case Study: First Steps
3.3 Classes
3.4 Fields, Constructors, and Methods
3.5 Case Study: First Steps Continued
3.6 Inheritance
3.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 4. Algorithms
4.1 Prologue
4.2 Properties of Algorithms
4.3 Iterations
4.4 Recursion
4.5 Case Study: Euclid’s GCF Algorithm
4.6 Working with Lists
4.7 Case Study: File Manager
4.8 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 5. Java Syntax and Style

5.1 Prologue
5.2 Using Comments
5.3 Reserved Words and Programmer-Defined Names
5.4 Syntax vs. Style
5.5 Statements, Blocks, Indentation
5.6 Lab: Correcting Syntax Errors
5.7 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

 CONTENTS ix

Chapter 6. Data Types, Variables, and Arithmetic

6.1 Prologue
6.2 Declaring Fields and Local Variables
6.3 Primitive Data Types
6.4 Strings
6.5 Constants
6.6 Scope of Variables
6.7 Arithmetic Expressions
6.8 Compound Assignment and Increment Operators
6.9 Converting Numbers and Objects into Strings
6.10 Lab: Pie Chart
6.11 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 7. Boolean Expressions and if-else Statements

7.1 Prologue
7.2 if–else Statements
7.3 boolean Data Type
7.4 Relational Operators
7.5 Logical Operators
7.6 Order of Operators
7.7 Short-Circuit Evaluation
7.8 if–else–if and Nested if–else
7.9 Case Study and Lab: Rolling Dice
7.10 The switch statement
7.11 Enumerated Data Types
7.12 Case Study and Lab: Rolling Dice Continued
7.13 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 8. Iterative Statements: while, for, do-while

8.1 Prologue
8.2 The while and for Loops
8.3 The do–while Loop
8.4 return and break in Loops
8.5 Nested Loops
8.6 Lab: Perfect Numbers
8.7 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

x CONTENTS

Chapter 9. Implementing Classes and Using Objects

9.1 Prologue
9.2 Public and Private Features of a Class
9.3 Constructors
9.4 References to Objects
9.5 Defining Methods
9.6 Calling Methods and Accessing Fields
9.7 Passing Parameters to Constructors and Methods
9.8 return Statement
9.9 Case Study and Lab: Snack Bar
9.10 Overloaded Methods
9.11 Static Fields and Methods
9.12 Case Study and Lab: Snack Bar Continued
9.13 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 10. Strings

10.1 Prologue
10.2 Literal Strings
10.3 String Constructors and Immutability
10.4 String Methods
10.5 Converting Numbers into Strings and Strings into Numbers
10.6 Character Methods
10.7 Lab: Lipogrammer
10.8 The StringBuffer Class
10.9 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 11. Class Hierarchies and Interfaces

11.1 Prologue
11.2 Class Hierarchies and Polymorphism
11.3 Abstract Classes
11.4 Invoking Superclass’s Constructors
11.5 Calling Superclass’s Methods
11.6 Case Study: Dance Studio
11.7 Interfaces
11.8 Case Study: Dance Studio Continued
11.9 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

 CONTENTS xi

Chapter 12. Arrays and ArrayLists

12.1 Prologue
12.2 One-Dimensional Arrays
12.3 Lab: Fortune Teller
12.4 The ArrayList Class
12.5 ArrayList’s Constructors and Methods
12.6 ArrayList’s Pitfalls
12.7 Iterations and the “For Each” Loop
12.8 Inserting and Removing Elements
12.9 Lab: Creating an Index for a Document
12.10 Two-Dimensional Arrays
12.11 Case Study and Lab: Chomp
12.12 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 13. Searching and Sorting

13.1 Prologue
13.2 equals, compareTo, and compare
13.3 Sequential and Binary Search
13.4 Lab: Keeping Things in Order
13.5 Selection Sort
13.6 Insertion Sort
13.7 Mergesort
13.8 Quicksort
13.9 Lab: Benchmarks
13.10 The Arrays and Collections Classes
13.11 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 14. Streams and Files

14.1 Prologue
14.2 Pathnames and the java.io.File Class
14.3 Reading from a Text File
14.4 Writing to a Text File
14.5 Lab: Dictionary Maker
14.6 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

xii CONTENTS

Chapter 15. Graphics

15.1 Prologue
15.2 paint, paintComponent, and repaint
15.3 Coordinates
15.4 Colors
15.5 Drawing Shapes
15.6 Fonts and Text
15.7 Case Study and Lab: Pieces of the Puzzle
15.8 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 16. GUI Components and Events

16.1 Prologue
16.2 Pluggable Look and Feel
16.3 Basic Swing Components and Their Events
16.4 Case Study and Lab: Speed Control
16.5 Pull-Down Menus
16.6 Layouts
16.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 17. Mouse, Keyboard, Sounds, and Images

17.1 Prologue
17.2 Mouse Events Handling
17.3 Keyboard Events Handling
17.4 Case Study and Lab: Drawing Editor
17.5 Lab: Cursor Keys
17.6 Sounds and Images
17.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 18. Big-O Analysis of Algorithms

18.1 Prologue
18.2 Big-O Notation
18.3 Sorting: a Big-O Review
18.4 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

 CONTENTS xiii

Chapter 19. The Java Collections Framework

19.1 Prologue
19.2 Collection<E> and Iterator<E>
19.3 Lists and ListIterator<E>
19.4 Stacks
19.5 Queues
19.6 Priority Queues
19.7 Sets
19.8 Maps
19.9 Case Study and Lab: Stock Exchange
19.10 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 20. Lists and Iterators

20.1 Prologue
20.2 Singly-Linked List
20.3 Traversals
20.4 Lab: Implementing a Singly-Linked List
20.5 Linked List with a Tail
20.6 Doubly-Linked List and Circular List
20.7 Lab: Teletext
20.8 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 21. Stacks and Queues

21.1 Prologue
21.2 Implementations of Stacks
21.3 Lab: Browsing
21.4 The Hardware Stack
21.5 Implementations of Queues
21.6 Case Study and Lab: Actors World
21.7 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

xiv CONTENTS

Chapter 22. Recursion Revisited

22.1 Prologue
22.2 Three Examples
22.3 When Not to Use Recursion
22.4 Understanding and Debugging Recursive Methods
22.5 Lab: The Tower of Hanoi
22.6 Case Study and Lab: The Game of Hex
22.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 23. Binary Trees

23.1 Prologue
23.2 Implementation of Binary Trees
23.3 Traversals
23.4 Binary Search Trees
23.5 Lab: Morse Code
23.6 Case Study and Lab: Java Messenger
23.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 24. Lookup Tables and Hashing

24.1 Prologue
24.2 Lookup Tables
24.3 Lab: Cryptogram Solver
24.4 Hash Tables
24.5 java.util’s HashSet and HashMap
24.6 Lab: Search Engine
24.7 Summary
Exercises

Chapter 25. Heaps and Priority Queues

25.1 Prologue
25.2 Implementations of Priority Queues
25.3 Binary Trees: Non-Linked Representation
25.4 Heaps and Priority Queues
25.5 Lab: Heapsort
25.6 Summary
Exercises

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

 CONTENTS xv

Chapter 26. Design Patterns

26.1 Prologue
26.2 Façade
26.3 Strategy
26.4 Singleton
26.5 Decorator
26.6 Composite
26.7 MVC (Model-View-Controller)
26.8 Summary
Exercises

Appendix A: The 17 Bits of Style

Appendix B: Common Syntax Error Messages
Appendix C: HTML Tutorial
Appendix D: GUI Examples Index
Appendix E: The EasyReader, EasyWriter, EasySound,
EasyDate, and EasyFormat Classes
Appendix F: Computing in Context: Responsible and Ethical
Computer Use

Index

Draft. Copyright © 2006 by Skylight Publishing.

Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Fig. 3.

Wooden Stemmer.
Stemmers.—This is usually effected in California by the use of
the common hand stemmer, though some large establishments are
using a stemmer run by steam or horse-power. The common
stemmer consists of an oblong shallow box or frame, six or eight
feet long by two wide, or any convenient size, and about six inches
deep, with a coarse wire netting or grating stretched across the
bottom. This grating is usually made of heavy galvanized iron wire,
with ¾ inch or inch meshes. Instead of having the grating extend
the whole length, a portion at one end may be floored with wood,
upon which a box of grapes can be placed without injuring the
grating. The only objection to this stemmer is that the grape juice
comes in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is a well
known fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are corroded by
the acids; it would be better to replace the wire with a wooden
grating, as in France (Fig. 3.).
How to Remove the Stems.—The grapes are dumped from
the boxes directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as
many as he can easily manage with both hands, and rubs and rolls
them to and fro upon the wire grating, and the berries, as they are
rubbed off, fall through the meshes, and the stems remain in the
hand. The few grapes that may remain are removed by raising the
mass of stems and forcibly throwing them two or three times upon
the grating. Sometimes the stems, with the few grapes clinging to
them, are turned over to another workman, who, with a hay fork,
tosses them about upon another grating till all the berries are
removed. The stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper of the
crusher, so that the grapes will fall directly into it, as they are
separated from the stems.
Crushing.—It is generally considered essential to crush the
grapes whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases, to
be hereafter noted, crushing is omitted.
Methods of Crushing.—It is well known that in Europe the
grapes are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men,
usually barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and many of
the best writers of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better
when the grapes have been well trodden with the bare feet, for by
thoroughly rubbing the skins and pounding them into a pulp without
breaking the seeds, they think that more color and aroma are
developed than can be obtained by simply crushing them, as in a
machine, and afterwards fermenting. Although the practice of
treading is the more common one in Europe, yet there are
exceptions, and in some places the crushing is done by rollers and
with satisfactory results. In California we are accustomed to regard
the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice, and a relic of a
past age, and it is almost universally discarded, being practiced only
occasionally and by Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into
our methods of practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may
rest assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but very
small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in.
Aerating the Must.—There seems to be some confusion on this
subject, for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air,
and prepared for fermentation, by treading. This may be true of
treading in the vat during fermentation, but simply treading the
grapes to crush them does not aerate the must as much as crushing
with rollers, for in the latter case the juice falls through a
considerable distance in a finely divided form, which thoroughly
exposes it to the air.
Crushers.—The machine generally
employed consists of two rollers made of
Fig. 4. wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or
8, or even more, inches in diameter, geared
together so that they revolve in opposite
directions and towards each other, and so
that the grapes will be drawn between
them from above. The rollers run near each
other, but do not touch, so that the grapes
will be crushed, and the seeds remain
unbroken. It is operated by one man
Crusher. turning a crank, either attached to one of
the rollers or to a pinion. Figure 4
represents such a crusher, except that in
the figure the rollers are open-work, instead of solid, as they should
be. It is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes to fall
between the rollers as they revolve, and the whole apparatus should
be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats, or
be easily conveyed to them or to the press, accordingly as it is to be
made into red or white wine.
Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but
there is no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely
adjusted to the motion of the cog wheels, they may break the seeds,
which is always considered injurious to the wine.
 Rapidity of Operation.—Five men—one to handle the boxes of
grapes, two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer, one
to operate the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove the
remaining grapes and to make himself generally useful—can stem
and crush with these hand machines twenty tons of grapes per day,
enough to make three thousand gallons of wine. And the work can
be done much more rapidly by the use of the stemmer and crusher
combined, which is to some extent used in the largest
establishments.
Special Practice.—Boireau says that it has been observed that
of the Médoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes have
less color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have
been crushed, but that they have a more refined and delicate taste
(plus fins de goût), and that consequently many of the proprietors of
the grands crûs of the Médoc in those years which are favorable to
the maturity of the grape do not crush; they only do it in inferior
years, when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, and when
they fear that the wine may not have a suitable color. And in another
place he tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be
bottled, a superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness
may be avoided by complete stemming, fermenting the whole
berries, and by drawing from the fermenting vat at just the right
time.
 CHAPTER V.
FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.

It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief summary

of the results of scientific investigation into this subject, for fear of
going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work, as this book is
intended preëminently for practical men. But as the work would be
incomplete without it, and as a knowledge of the general
phenomena of fermentation, and of the different influences to which
it is subject, are of vast importance to those who will intelligently
apply their principles, I give the following as but a brief resumé, and
will put it as plainly as the subject will permit. Most of the ideas
given below are extracted from Schutzenberger’s work on
fermentation.
There are several different kinds of Fermentation, as (1)
vinous, alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or viscous
fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal fermentation;
(5) butyric fermentation; (6) putrifaction; and (7) acetic
fermentation, or fermentation by oxidation, and others.
Alcoholic Fermentation is that which sugar undergoes under
the influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that this
ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms, or
an assemblage of microscopic cells.
The Yeast Plant.—Our author gives them the name of
saccharomyces cerevisiæ, following those who consider it to be a
species of fungus, and states that it is now very generally admitted
that ferments are fungi, although by some they have been
considered animal in their nature. These cells are round or oval, and
are from .00031 to .00035 of an inch in their greatest diameter.
“They are formed of a thin and elastic membrane of colorless
cellulose, and of a protoplasm, also colorless, sometimes
homogeneous, sometimes composed of small granulations.” The
cells are separate or united two by two. When they are deposited in
a fermentable liquid, as a sugar solution or a must, small
prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two points, the
interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother cell; these
prominences grow until they have attained the size of the original
cell, when the base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and
immediately they separate from the mother cell, and under favorable
conditions one cell produces several generations, but by degrees it
loses all its protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in
super-abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies;
the membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in
the liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two
kinds: surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation,
depending upon a high or a low degree of heat. The surface
saccharomyces develop more rapidly than the others, are larger, and
they bud so rapidly that the cells which issue from each other do not
separate, but remain attached, forming ramified chains of from six to
twelve or more buds. The bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold
on these chaplets than on single cells, which causes the newly
formed yeast to rise to the surface during active fermentation. These
organisms or fungi produce spores which are sown on the surface of
fruits, and get into the juice by crushing, when they commence their
reproduction by budding. So that the basis or cause of the
phenomena which we call fermentation is the growth and
reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is made up principally of the
minute organisms just described.
Functions of Yeast.—Yeast is a living organism, belonging to
the family of fungi, genus Saccharomyces, destitute of mycelium,
capable of reproduction, like all the elementary fungi, by buds and
spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of other vegetable
tissues, and especially the plants of the same family. It does not
differ essentially from other elementary cells, unprovided with
chlorophyll.
 Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast.—The conditions
which our author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are those in
which it develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and
energy. They are of two orders, physical and chemical.
With respect to physical conditions, it is only necessary to notice
the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of yeast, and
that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable
organisms, is between 25° C. and 35° C. (77° and 95° F.) Above and
below these limits, the vital manifestations do not cease until we
descend below 9° C. (48.2° F.), or rise above 60° C. (140° F.), the
temperature at which albuminoid principles begin to coagulate.
With regard to the chemical conditions, our author says that the
most favorable medium is that which contains the most appropriate
nutritive elements. And as yeast contains water, mineral salts,
especially potassium, magnesium, and calcium phosphates,
therefore water and the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will
be necessary. We find, besides, a great proportion of nitrogenous
substances, either albuminous or otherwise; and therefore the food
of yeast must contain nitrogen. It is supposed, however, that the
cells are not directly nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits,
the wort of beer, or yeast water, but by analogous compounds
contained in them, which have the property of passing by osmose
through the membranes; for the albuminoids themselves, it is said,
cannot pass through. Pasteur has shown by his experiments, that
mineral salts are absolutely necessary to the development and
nutrition of the yeast cell; and Mayer follows him with details as
follows: Preparations of iron, in small quantities, seem to have no
influence; in larger proportions, they are injurious. Potassium
phosphate is indispensable, and the absence of lime has little effect.
Magnesium, on the contrary, appeared to be very useful, if not
indispensable. The combinations of sodium present no material
effects.
Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment
of the yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic
fermentation, a part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state of
cellulose or some analogous body, for, when the fermentation is
completed, it is found that more yeast is present than at the
commencement. Water is necessary, and the yeast cell manifests its
activity, develops and is nourished within the limits of 40 and 80 per
cent. of water, though yeast, dried with precaution, may regain its
power when moistened. And the fact that a solution containing over
35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, is explained on the theory
that such a solution takes from the cells by osmose a sufficient
quantity of water to lower their hydration below 40 per cent. The
cells of the Saccharomyces cerevisiæ, introduced into a liquid
medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and develop a
corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This constitutes
respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful experiments it
has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with
dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more active than that of
fishes, and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute
vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life.
Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air, and fermentation is more
rapid when a large surface of the liquid is exposed, and then the
budding is more active.
Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents.—“It has
long been known that certain chemical compounds, especially those
which coagulate albuminous substances, and disorganize the tissues,
or which, by their presence in sufficient quantities, are incompatible
with life, are opposed to fermentation; such are the acids and
alkalies in suitable proportions, silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the
soluble iron, copper, and lead salts, tannin, phenol, creosote,
chloroform, essence of mustard, alcohol when its strength is above
20 per cent., hydrocyanic and oxalic acids, even in very small
quantities.
“An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in
the same manner, by diminishing in the interior of the
cell the minimum quantity of water, which is necessary
to the manifestation of its vital activity.
 “The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese
peroxide, the alkaline sulphites and sulphates, the
essences of turpentine and of lemon, etc., also
interfere with, and destroy alcoholic fermentation.
“Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the
contrary, inactive.”
Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing
through yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into
glucose, nor its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermentation is
slower in the dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sulphur did not
sensibly affect fermentation, but the carbonic acid evolved contained
sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphurous acid, however, arrests
fermentation. Yeast is always acid, but an addition of an excess of
different acids arrests the decomposition of sugar. If one hundred
times the amount of acid contained in the yeast is added,
fermentation does not take place.
M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but the
subject has little if any interest for the wine maker.
Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation is also excited, according
to Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it into
a kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide. This ferment
is also formed of small globules united as in a necklace, whose
diameter varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch. These globules,
sown in a saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter
and mineral substances, always give rise to viscous fermentation.
One hundred parts of cane sugar give: mannite, 51.09; gum, 45.48;
and carbon dioxide, 6.18. The liquids which are most apt to produce
viscous fermentation can also undergo lactic and butyric
fermentation, but in this case the organized forms of life which are
developed in the liquid are of a different nature. The conditions of
action necessary to these gummy and mannitic ferments are the
same as those which suit alcoholic ferment. The most favorable
temperature is 30° C. (86° F.) This fermentation is what gives rise to
the disease of wines, called by the French la graisse, or ropiness.
White wine is more subject to it than red, and it is generally due to
the want of tannin. (See Ropiness.)
Lactic Fermentation is the transformation which certain
sugars, as sugar of milk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which
they are changed into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring of
milk. The most favorable temperature for it seems to be about 95° F.
This also depends on a special ferment. Sugar solutions are also
capable of butyric fermentation and putrefaction, and we generally
see viscous, lactic, and butyric fermentation appear in succession.
Acetic Fermentation is to the wine maker and wine dealer,
after alcoholic fermentation, the most important.
Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but
oxygen also is necessary.
It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented
liquids, such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain
circumstances, and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that the
air, or rather its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction.
To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus:

Alcohol. Water. Acetic Acid.

C₂H₆O + O₂ = H₂O + C₂H₄O₂,
or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the
production of an intermediate product, aldehyde:

Alcohol. Aldehyde.
C₂H₆O + O = H₂O + C₂H₄O,

Aldehyde. Acetic Acid.

C₂H₄O + O = C₂H₄O₂
 According to Pasteur, the oxidation of alcohol is the consequence
of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, Mycoderma aceti, and it
makes its appearance on the surface of liquids, while in acetic
fermentation, in the form of a continuous membrane, mother of
vinegar, either wrinkled or smooth, which is generally formed of very
minute elongated cells, whose greater diameter varies from .000059
to .000118 of an inch; these cells are united in chains, or in the form
of curved rods. Multiplication seems to be effected by the transverse
division of the fully developed cells. The conditions of nutrition are
similar to those suitable to the alcoholic ferment, the hydro-carbon
matter being supplied by dilute alcohol. It may, however, be
supplemented by the acetic acid itself; for if the process is left too
long to itself, the vinegar loses its strength by being consumed. The
most favorable temperature is between 76° and 82° F.
Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast,
act in the same manner on the Mycoderma aceti. Sulphurous acid is
especially active in this manner; hence the use of the sulphur match
in sulphuring wine casks.
There is another ferment, Mycoderma vini, or flowers of wine,
which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the air
when fermentation is over or has become languid, which resembles
in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power of producing
alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to be derived from
the Saccharomyces. Like the Mycoderma aceti, it is developed on the
surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in the form of smooth or
wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker and more compact. It
grows with great rapidity, and it has been calculated that one cell
would, in forty-eight hours, produce about 35,378 cells. These cells
are of various forms, ovoid, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded
extremities. The ovoid cells have their greater diameter about
.000236, and their smaller one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders
have their diameters .00047 × .000118 in. The nutritive principles
are the same as those of the mother of vinegar: alcohol, salts and
nitrogenous compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for
nutrition the secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as
succinic acid and glycerine. Its development is most active between
61° and 86° F. (See Sherry.)
Origin of Ferments.—In order to produce the different kinds of
fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it is
already contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In the
manufacture of beer and bread, yeast must be used; the other kinds
of fermentation, except alcoholic, can generally be produced by the
ferments or their spores furnished by the atmosphere; but Pasteur,
in the course of his investigations, never produced alcoholic
fermentation from spores found in the air. But the germs of the
Saccharomyces cerevisiæ and of Mycoderma vini seem to be found
only on the surface of fruits, and their stems.[2]
These different germs, however, are all found in the must of
grapes, and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable
conditions offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine. It is
found that these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the
liquid to 140° F., and hence the process of heating wines to preserve
them (which see).
Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what is
of more practical importance.

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
IN WINE MAKING.
Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation transforms the juice of the
grape into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the yeast or
ferment, which finds its way into the must; and by this fermentation
the sugar of the grape is changed principally into alcohol, and
carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. And in order to show the
relations between the sugar and the alcohol produced, it is
necessary to say something about the chemical constituents of each.
Sugar.—In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the
chemical formula, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, or, in other words, one molecule
contains 12 atoms of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.
And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed
by the formula C₆H₁₂O₁₆, or one molecule contains 6 atoms of
carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen.
If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds, the
chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific. Taking the
formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply means that 342
pounds contain the following ingredients, in the following
proportions:

lbs. lbs.
12 parts carbon, each weighing 12, 144
22 “ hydrogen, “ 1, 22
11 “ oxygen, “ 16, 176
342
And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain:

lbs. lbs.
6 parts of carbon, @ 12, 72
12 “ hydrogen, “ 1, 12
6 “ oxygen, “ 16, 96
180
And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain:

lbs. lbs.
2 parts of hydrogen, @ 1, 2
1 part “ oxygen, “ 16, 16
18
In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately transformed,
although cane sugar ferments also; but, before doing so, it becomes
changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule takes up a
molecule of water, and produces two of glucose, thus:

Cane Sugar. Water. Glucose.

C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O = 2 C₆H₁₂O₆
342 + 18 = 2 × 180 = 360.
Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 lbs. of pure cane sugar are
equal to 105.26 lbs. of pure grape sugar.
The general formula for alcohol is C₂H₆O, and for carbonic acid
CO₂.
Alcohol by Weight and by Volume.—The quantity of alcohol
contained in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed
as per cent. by weight, or per cent. by volume. The first method is
usually used by chemists, and the second in commerce. If we have
100 lbs. of a mixture of alcohol and water of which 10 lbs. are
alcohol and 90 lbs. water, it contains 10 per cent. of alcohol by
weight. If, however, we have 100 gallons of a mixture in which there
are 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water, we say that it
contains 10 per cent. by volume of alcohol. This will serve to
illustrate the meaning of the terms per cent. by volume and by
weight, although it is well known that, owing to shrinkage, 10
gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water do not produce quite 100
gallons of mixture.
Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent. of
alcohol, they mean per cent. by volume or measure; and whenever
the expression is used in this work, it is used in that sense, unless
otherwise expressed.
Fermentation—Its Products.—Per cent. Sugar to per cent.
Alcohol.—In theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation, is
entirely changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two substances
produced containing the same elements as glucose, and no others.
If there was no loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it is called, the
reaction would be exactly expressed as follows:

Carbonic
Glucose. Alcohol.
Acid.
C₆H₁O₆ = 2 C₂H₆O + 2 CO₂
180 = 92 + 88
And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce 92 of
alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus:

180 : 92 :: 100 : x = 51.1111,

leaving the balance to be accounted for by carbonic acid 48.8889
100
And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111
alcohol, how much does it take to produce 1 per cent. by weight?

51.1111 : 1 :: 100 : x = 1.9565.

These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is
transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Different Authors.—Pasteur has shown that a portion of the
glucose was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and as the
result of one of the experiments which he gives, out of a large
number, it appears that 100 parts of glucose produce about 48.46 of
alcohol, and it would require 2.063 to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol
by weight, and 1.65 to produce 1 per cent. by volume.
But this eminent chemist’s experiments were conducted in the
laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that no
loss by evaporation could occur—conditions under which
fermentation on a large scale is never carried on.
Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent. of grape sugar
to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, which is even less than is required
according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little. And the statement
has been made, that a must containing 20 per cent. of sugar will
produce 13 per cent. of alcohol, which is impossible.
J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss to be
4½ per cent. of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the per
cent. by weight of alcohol produced by 1 per cent. of grape sugar.
Dubief says that it takes 1.7 per cent. of cane sugar to produce 1
per cent. of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussingault gives his
experiments on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions
similar to those under which fermentation is carried on in wine
making on a large scale; and the result of his researches is that the
product in alcohol is about 90 per cent. of what the chemical theory
calls for: say, .46 by weight for 1 of sugar, or 1.7 + glucose for 1 per
cent. of alcohol by volume. Mr. M. Boussingault gives it as the result
of his experiment, that it takes 1.8 per cent. of sugar to produce 1
per cent. of alcohol.
So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about
1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for loss
by evaporation, etc.
As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent.
for every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar
shown by the hydrometer for other matters than sugar.
If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24° by the
saccharometer, we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar.
Although it is not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will
give the per cent. of alcohol which may be expected after
fermentation, owing to the well known variation between per cent.
by weight and by volume, as the figures increase, yet it is sufficient
for all practical purposes.
Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8,
the amount required to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, and we
obtain 12 and a fraction. Now the total indication by the
saccharometer was 24 per cent.; if we divide this by two we get the
same result in round numbers.
Hence the rule: one-half of the figure indicating the total per
cent. by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per
cent. of alcohol to be expected in the wine.
Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration
may vary greatly in different cases, this will be only a rough
estimate, but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be
adopted, and it corresponds very closely with the statement made
by N. Basset, that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent. gives
only 7.88 per cent. of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with 10
per cent. by volume, nearly; and it is the rule given by Petiot and Dr.
Gall for a natural must.
It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only true
of a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of a very
high degree of sugar.
Limits of Sugar and Spirit.—It is said that when a solution or
a must contains over 35 per cent. of sugar, it will not ferment; nor
will a wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent. of
spirit ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a
wine can attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between
15 and 16 per cent., and those wines which show a higher degree
have been fortified. He says that the highest degree of spirit ever
observed by him in a natural red wine was 15.4 per cent., when it
was a year old; from that time the strength diminished, but the wine
always remained sweet.
There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems to
be well authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained
naturally, by fermentation, 32.4° of British proof spirit, which is
equal to about 18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr. Ellis, of
the firm of Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fermented Alto
Douro wine will develop 32° proof spirit, or 18 per cent. of alcohol,
and when made exclusively from the Bastardo grape, as much as
34°, or about 19 per cent. of spirit. And Mr. Vizitelli adds that he is
satisfied from what he saw at Jerez, that sherry wines which have
had merely 1 or 2 per cent. of spirit added to them will in the course
of time indicate 34°. To produce these results would seem to require
more than 35 per cent. of sugar, according to our rule; but while it is
approximately correct to say that 2 per cent. of sugar produces 1 per
cent. of alcohol as long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25
per cent. and under, it may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per
cent., for the other solid matters probably do not increase in
proportion to the sugar. Therefore, to reconcile this high degree of
alcohol with the statement that a must containing over 35 per cent.
of sugar will not ferment, we must use Pasteur’s figures, and then
we will find that by them 35 per cent. of sugar is capable of
producing over 20 per cent. of alcohol.
Temperature.—The temperature most favorable to fermentation
—that is, at which it commences most promptly, and goes on the
most rapidly—is between 77° and 95° F., and it does not cease until
the temperature descends below 49°, or rises above 140°. If the
temperature is favorable, fermentation ought to commence in ten or
twelve hours from the time the pomace is put into the vat, or the
juice into the barrel. In countries where the weather is cold at the
wine making season, it is necessary that the grapes should be
gathered in the heat of the day, or fermentation will be long in
commencing; and if the weather continues unfavorable, so that the
grapes do not become warmed by the sun, it is even necessary to
heat a portion of the must artificially, and pour it into the vats or
casks, or to raise the temperature of the fermenting house.
Mr. Maumené also recommends that the vats be surrounded with
mats of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in place by
a covering of linen cloth; and in this way the temperature produced
by the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather, without
resorting to fires in the fermenting house.
It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most
favorable to fermentation; for it commences readily in a temperature
of about 70°, and the liquid will soon rise to 85° or 95°, by the heat
developed during the process; and unless the surrounding
temperature descends below 65°, this heat will be maintained, and
the fermentation will not be checked. Dr. Guyot says, however, that,
to make fine wines, it should be maintained at 68°, at least; and
that, in other cases, it should not be allowed to fall below 60°.
Fermenting Houses.—It is important not only that
fermentation should commence promptly, but that it should be
maintained regularly; and although a great amount of heat is
developed by fermentation, yet the must is liable to cool during the
night and cold days, unless the vats and casks are protected from
the change of temperature, whereby the fermentation may be
checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural conclusion is that the
must ought to be fermented in closed places. In California, however,
it is not necessary to construct the fermenting house with the same
care required in colder climates, where it is deemed desirable to
furnish them with double windows and doors. It cannot be denied
that good wine is made in this State, in places where the vats
remain out of doors, shaded only by trees; but the practice is not to
be encouraged, for the fermentation will be checked if the
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to 60° and below.
In constructing a fermenting house, it ought to be so arranged,
when practicable, as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer
and crusher, and higher than the cellar; for then the pomace and
must can be run immediately into the vats and casks, and, after the
first fermentation, the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the
casks in the cellar, thereby saving time and labor.
 CHAPTER VI.
RED WINE.

Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is
extracted from the skins during fermentation. The coloring matter is
blue, but is changed to red by the action of the acids in the must.
(See Coloring Matter—Oenocyanine.) In order to develop this color,
the grapes are fermented, skins and juice together, and the press is
only brought into requisition after the first fermentation is
completed.
Fermenting Tanks or Vats.—The tanks or vats in which red
wine is fermented, in France are generally made of oak, sometimes
of masonry, but in this State redwood has been almost universally
adopted, and I am not aware of any serious inconveniences from its
use. It is advisable before using them the first time, to steam them
for several hours, or thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring
matter of the wood.
The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a
season, varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more, and a
sufficient number should be provided that when wine making has
commenced, it can be carried on without interruption till the crop is
worked up. The number of workmen must be considered as well as
the amount of grapes, and everything ought to be so arranged that
the fermentation will be finished in the first tank filled, by the time
the last one is full, so that the first can be emptied and filled again,
and then the second, and so on. A hole must be bored in each vat
two or three inches from the bottom by which to draw the wine
through a faucet. And some kind of a strainer must be put over this
hole inside to keep back the marc—a piece of perforated tin, a
grating of small sticks, or a bundle of straw or vine cuttings kept in
place by a stone.
 Filling the Tanks.—In order that the whole mass in one tank
may be equally fermented, it should receive its full complement of
grapes in one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day and part
another, not only will some of them complete their fermentation
before the others, but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting
mass will interrupt the fermentation, and prove injurious to the wine.
The vats must not be filled to their full capacity, for during violent
fermentation the marc, consisting of skins and seeds, or those with
the stems, rises to the top, brought up by the bubbles of carbonic
acid which are constantly rising, and a portion of the boiling and
foaming mass may be carried over the top, and much wine thereby
be lost. They should only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a
half of the top, and a little experience will show the proper practice.
Guyot says that they should only be filled to five-sixths of their
capacity at most. Another reason for not filling the tank is that a
layer of carbonic acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the
pomace, and prevent the contact of the air and the consequent
souring of the wine, by the changing of a portion of the alcohol into
acetic acid—vinegar.
Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or in
vats hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way.
In Open Vats, other conditions being equally favorable,
fermentation commences more promptly and is sooner ended, owing
to the free access of the air, a certain amount of oxygen, as already
shown, being necessary to fermentation. Although fermentation will
continue away from the air when once started, it will be slow. The
objections to open vats are, that although there is a layer of
carbonic acid resting above the must, yet it is liable to be disturbed
and become mixed with the air, and if the fermentation is long
continued, a portion of the wine may become sour. Those who
employ open tanks should also avail themselves of those conditions
under which the wine will complete its fermentation in a few days,
and should draw off promptly.
 Closed Vats.—By using closed vats fermentation will be longer
in commencing, and will proceed more slowly, but as already
intimated, the wine can with safety be left longer in them than in
open tanks. When it is necessary to develop much color, it would be
advisable to use covered tanks, for the longer the wine is left in
contact with the skins, the darker it becomes. The covering should
be close enough to prevent the immediate contact of the open air,
and yet allow the escape of gas—of close boards, but not luted,
unless provided with a safety valve.

Fig. 5.
 The Best Practice, however, in all cases, whether the vats are
closed or not, is to have a false head resting directly upon the
pomace, and which will keep the latter submerged during the whole
process of fermentation. In this way good color will be developed,
and the marc will be kept from the air, and the danger of souring will
be avoided. In figure 5, A represents a fermenting vat with the front
half removed, showing the false head in place.
This head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by one
upon the pomace, and maybe perforated with auger holes as
represented in C, or may be a wooden grating, D. These pieces or
sections together constitute the head B, and are kept in place by two
cross pieces, e e, which are held down by blocks bolted or pinned to
the inside of the tank. G is a stave with a block, f, attached, and H
the same, showing the cross piece, e, slipped under it. When the
tank is filled to the required height, the false head is put in, resting
on the pomace, the ends of the cross pieces are slipped under the
blocks, and everything is ready. As soon as the fermentation
becomes violent, the whole will be submerged in the bubbling wine.
Hermetically Sealed Tanks.—Closely covered tanks must be
provided with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic
acid gas, leading and discharging into a vessel of water, which
completely prevents contact with the air. Under pressure the
fermentation is much slower, and is not so complete. Yet great
advantages are claimed for this method by some writers who
maintain that by keeping the cover cool with wet straw or cloth, or
by using a safety tube in the form of a worm passing through a
condenser on the top of the vat, the vapors are condensed and fall
back into the liquid, preventing loss of alcohol, and increasing the
aroma, and that the wine acquires a superior fineness and velvety
smoothness under the pressure of the gas. Boireau says that this
latter quality is caused by the complete dissolution of the
mucilaginous matters; and Pasteur has shown that more glycerine is
produced when the fermentation is slow, which may contribute to
the mellowness and smoothness.
Practice in the Médoc.—Mr. Boireau says that the greater part
of the grand red wines of the Médoc, the prime St. Emilion, and the
prime Graves, are fermented in closed vats; though a certain
number of the viniculturists still follow the old custom, and make
their wine in open vats.
Stirring the Pomace in the Vats.—In Burgundy, and in some
other parts of France, it is considered necessary to give the mass a
thorough stirring (foulage) during the active fermentation, in order
that all parts may be equally exposed to the action of the ferment,
and also that a good color may be developed; and for this purpose
men enter into the vats and thoroughly mix the pomace and stir it
about with their naked bodies and limbs, a practice not only
disgusting in the extreme, but dangerous for the men, who are
exposed to the poisonous effects of carbonic acid. It is by no means
a general practice, and is of doubtful utility, even if it should be done
by other agents than the naked human body.
It is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the must
is stirred during fermentation. By the aeration fermentation would
naturally be increased; but Dr. Guyot shows that stirring actually
diminishes its activity, and he advocates the practice in order that
the fermentation be not too tumultuous. The temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere being lower than that of the fermenting
mass, aeration by stirring must, by lowering the temperature,
diminish the activity of the fermentation. Mr. Haraszthy, in his lecture
before the Convention of Viniculturists in 1882, recommended that
the mass be stirred when the fermentation commences to lag, on
the theory that by thus mixing again the yeast with the liquid, so
exposing it again completely to the action of the ferment,
fermentation would start again with renewed vigor. It can easily be
stirred with poles provided with shoulders or short cross pieces.
It has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated by
crushing the grapes with rollers, and where the vats are provided
with a false head to keep the pomace submerged, the wine will have
sufficient color without the stirring; and it would seem that the wine
would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into it near the end of
fermentation. Where the vats are not covered, and the grapes are
not stemmed and not kept submerged, a crust or cap is formed on
the top of the fermenting mass, which sours and rots if long exposed
to the air, and the mixing of this with the liquid has a most
deleterious effect upon the wine.
When to Draw from the Vats.—When the first or active
fermentation in the vats is completed, the new wine must be drawn
off into pipes, and thus be separated from the marc, consisting of
skins, seeds, and sometimes stems, and also from the heavy lees
which has settled in the vats, and it is important to know the proper
time to do this.
The duration of active fermentation depends upon several causes
and conditions as already indicated, such as heat, the amount of
sugar contained in the must, whether the vats are covered or open,
the immersion of the marc, and whether the grapes are stemmed,
etc. It may be completed in four or five days, or it may continue for
fifteen or twenty days. In case of musts poor in sugar it may rarely
terminate in twenty-four hours. In some parts of France the grapes
are allowed to macerate for weeks and even months (for they
cannot ferment actively for that length of time), and what might be
good wine, thus is often spoiled.
The Objections to Long Vatting are that the marc will absorb
an undue amount of alcohol, as is shown when it is submitted to
distillation in brandy making, for marcs which have remained long in
the vats with the wine yield more spirits, and, of course, the wine is
deprived of so much strength. This objection, however, would have
but little force where the grapes are stemmed. Another and more
serious objection is, that by a long exposure to the air which is apt
to take place when the vats are not closely covered, some of the
alcohol will be changed to vinegar, and the wine will rapidly
degenerate, and become sour. Long contact with the seeds, skins
and stems also produces a foreign taste in the wine known to the
French as goût de râpe, stem flavor; and it is obvious that if the
marc is allowed to remain in the liquid till it macerates and rots, it
will acquire a still more disagreeable aroma and flavor. It is also said
that some varieties of grapes which will not produce a wine with a
bouquet, when allowed to remain long in the tank, will develop it in
a vatting of short duration. The only advantage to be gained by
leaving a wine in the vat after the active fermentation is finished, is
in the way of color. When it is desirable—if it ever is—to produce a
dark-colored wine at the expense of other good qualities, it may be
left in the vat to soak. Such wines have their use, and that is to mix
with those which lack color, but it is much better to mix in a quantity
of grapes which naturally produce good color.
In making Fine Wines, a dark color is not looked for nor
desired, but rather a bright and lively red; and they should be
allowed to remain in the vat only long enough to convert the greater
part of the sugar into alcohol.
How to Know when to Draw from the Vat.—It is said in
general terms that the wine should be drawn from the vat when the
active fermentation is finished. This is known by the taste of the
wine by those long familiar with the vinous flavor which takes the
place of the sweet taste of the sugar; it is also recognized by the
cessation of the production of carbonic acid and the consequent
bubbling, the falling of the temperature, the settling down of the
marc, and by the clearing of the liquid. If the must or new wine
shows from 0° to 1° by Baumé’s hydrometer, or from 0° to 2° by
Balling’s saccharometer, nearly all the sugar will have been
converted into alcohol; I say nearly all, for all the sugar is not
converted till long after the wine is drawn from the vat. Boireau says
that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the hydrometer marks
several degrees of density, and the liquid is warm, sweetish, and
muddy. He says, moreover, that care should be taken that active
fermentation has entirely ceased before putting the wine in pipes,
for if it is still sweetish and fermenting, it will remain sweet a long
time, and ferments will often remain in suspension, which will render
the wine difficult to clear, and liable to ferment and become sour.
Method of Drawing from Vats and filling Casks.—If the
pipes are on the same level with the vat, or higher, the new wine is
run from the vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in them
to the casks and poured into these through a funnel, or is run into a
large receptacle or tub placed immediately under the faucet and
pumped into the casks by means of a force pump. But the more
expeditious way is to have the casks ranged on a level lower than
the bottom of the fermenting tank, and then to run the wine directly
into them through a hose attached to the faucet. Of course, careful
men must be in attendance to watch the operation, and close the
faucet as soon as the cask is filled, and immediately transfer the
hose to an empty one, so that the wine may not run over and waste.
Where the wine is drawn from more than one vat, it should be
equally distributed through all the casks, so that the quality may be
as nearly uniform as possible. If the press wine is to be mixed with
the vat wine, the casks should only be filled to three-fourths or four-
fifths of their capacity, in order to leave room for the former.

Fig. 6.
 Wine Presses.
Wine Presses.—Wine presses are constructed in several
different forms, and the force is applied by means of a simple lever,
consisting of a long timber weighted at the end and rigged with a
rope and pulley to raise and lower it, or by means of a large screw.
Hydraulic presses are also used in large establishments. It is not
necessary here to give a detailed description of a press of either
kind, for the prospective wine maker will examine the different ones
and see them in action, and choose according to his means and
necessities. Fig. 6 represents screw presses. A very simple one,
however, and which can be made by any carpenter, consists of a box
two or three feet square, and a foot or more high. This box,
however, is made up of sections, each of which is five or six inches
high; and they should be constructed of strong two-inch timber, well
mortised together, and perforated with small holes through which
the wine may ooze out. The height, and consequently the capacity
of the box or receptacle will depend upon the number of sections
used. A broad board constitutes the bottom of the press and should
be larger than the receptacle itself, and be provided with a rim open
in the middle of the lower side, and having a shallow spout for the
wine to run through. This bottom is firmly placed so as to incline
slightly forward, the sections are placed on it, one on the other, till
the box is of the desired height, then the marc from the vat is filled
in and a head or follower fitted to the inside of the box is placed on
the marc, and pressure is applied with a lever. This lever is a strong
piece of timber with its fulcrum end placed in a mortise in a large
tree, or adjusted in any other suitable manner, allowing free play to
the other end to which is attached the rope and pulley to facilitate
its movement.
Pressing and Press Wine.—In the manufacture of all but fine
wines, it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the wine
from the vat. And as the wine remaining in the pomace is about one-
fourth of the whole, it will be equally distributed among all the casks
by filling with it the vacancy left in them. If a light pressure is first
applied, the wine of the first pressing will differ but little from the vat
wine. After this, however, the marc should be spaded and stirred and
pressure applied again, and the process repeated till the wine no
longer flows. During the last pressing it is necessary to apply so
much force that a great amount of coloring matter is pressed from
the skins, and tannin from the seeds, and also from the stems when
not removed, and the advantage of color may be more than
counterbalanced by the excess of tannin. There may be danger of
giving the wine too much astringency by mixing the last pressings.
Special Practice for Fine Wines.—Mr. Boireau indicates the
practice in making common wines, as follows, as a warning to those
who can make fine wines. He says that the wine which the marc
contains is removed by pressing it almost to dryness, and that the
wine thus obtained is very muddy, very harsh, and sometimes sour,
particularly when the upper part of the crust has not been removed,
where open vats are used and the marc not submerged. The greater
part of the proprietors of the ordinary growths have the deplorable
habit of mixing the press wine, without clearing it, with the limpid
part drawn from the vat. He says that it should be kept separate, or
otherwise the better part of the wine will be made muddy and
difficult to clear.

TREATMENT OF RED WINE.

Insensible Fermentation.—After the wine has undergone its
active fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled
into casks, the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place
above ground of even, moderate temperature, or in an underground
cellar whose temperature is not much below 60° F. The new wine
still contains some sugar, and a slow fermentation goes on, bubbles
of gas are given off, and sediment falls to the bottom. This is called
the secondary or insensible fermentation, and when this is finished
and no more gas arises, the wine has become clear. A good deal of
the carbonic acid that rises in bubbles is not produced by the
insensible fermentation, but has become dissolved in the wine
during the active fermentation, and is gradually given off with the
new gas produced. While the gas is produced in the cask, it must
not be closely bunged, but the bung-holes should be loosely covered
with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, or a bag of sand, so that
the gas may escape. Various patent bungs have been devised with
the same object.
The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this
period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely
ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has lost the
peculiar pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon as this
fermentation is ended, the casks should be tightly bunged with
conical bungs, which can be easily removed during the period when
it is necessary to fill up frequently.
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