Unit-4- Electrical Machines

Lecture-4 DC Motor

Direct Current Machine

A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. When it converts
mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), it is known as a DC generator.
On the other hand, when it converts DC electrical power into mechanical power it is
known as a DC motor.
Construction of DC Machine
The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact, when
the machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a
d.c. generator or motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa.
The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a DC machine is
shown in Fig. 4.1. The essential parts of a DC machine are described below:

Fig-4.1 Disassembled parts of a DC machine

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke: The outer cylindrical frames to which main poles and
inter poles are fixed is called yoke. It also helps to fix the machine on the
foundation. It serves two purposes:
 (i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is
made of cast steel or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better
magnetic properties as compared to cast iron.

Fig-4.2 Sectional view of DC machine

2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes: The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the
magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the following purposes:
(i) They support the field or exciting coils.
(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more
uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is
reduced.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron
laminations which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in
Fig-4.3.

Fig-4.3 Field winding placed around pole core Fig-4.4 Magnetic circuit of DC machine
3. Field or Exciting Coils: Enameled copper wire is used for the construction of
field or exciting coils. The coils are wound on the former and then placed around
the pole core as shown in Fig. 4.3. When direct current is passed through the field
winding, it magnetizes the poles which produce the required flux. The field coils
of all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when current flows
through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity as shown in Fig. 4.4.
4. Armature Core: It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the
outer periphery slots are cut, which accommodate the armature winding. The
armature core serves the following purposes:
(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.
(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in
the core, hence hysteresis losses are produced. To minimize these losses silicon
steel material is used for its construction. When it rotates, it cuts the magnetic
field and an emf is induced in it. This emf circulates eddy currents which results
in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these losses, armature core is laminated, in
other words we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are used for its
construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the other by varnish
layer.
5. Armature Winding: The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are
suitably connected. This is known as armature winding. The armature winding
acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a place where one form of power is
converted to the other form i.e., in case of generator, mechanical power is
converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power is
converted into mechanical power. On the basis of connections, there are two
types of armature windings named (i) Lap winding and (ii) Wave winding.
(i) In lap winding the connections are such that the number of parallel paths
is equal to number of poles and the number of brushes is equal to the
number parallel paths.
(ii) In wave winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel
paths are only two irrespective of the number of poles and the number of
brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel paths.
6. Commutator: It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following
purposes:
(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external
circuit through brushes.
(ii) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors
into unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator action,
whereas, it converts the alternating torque into unidirectional
(continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action.
The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard
drawn copper segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin
 sheet of mica. The segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings
that fit into the V-grooves cut into the segments. Each armature coil is connected
to the commutator segment.
7. Brushes: The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the
connecting link between the armature winding and the external circuit. They are
usually made of high grade carbon because carbon is conducting material and at
the same time in powdered form provides lubricating effect on the commutator
surface. The brushes are held in particular position around the commutator by
brush holders and rocker.
8. Brush Rocker: It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the
stationary frame of the machine with nut and bolts. By adjusting its position, the
position of the brushes over the commutator can be adjusted to minimise the
sparking at the brushes.
9. End Housings: End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and
support bearings. The front housing supports the bearing and the brush
assemblies whereas the rear housing usually supports the bearing only.
10. Bearings: The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the end
housings. Their function is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary
parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of
bearings as it is very hard material.
11. Shaft: The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The
shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating
parts like armature core, commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

DC Motor:
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine) that converts DC
electrical energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (� T) is called a DC
motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., hammers, presses,
drilling machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers for furnaces,
etc., and domestic appliances, e.g., refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc.

Working Principle of DC Motors:

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The
direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by the relation:
F = Bil newton
 Fig- 4.5 Working principle of a motor
For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field
produced by a bipolar machine, see Fig. 4.5(a). When DC supply is connected to the
coil, current flows through it which sets up its own field as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). By
the interaction of the two fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a
resultant field is set up as shown in Fig. 4.5(c). The tendency of this is to come to its
original position i.e., in straight line due to which force is exerted on the two coil
sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.
In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the armature. All the
conductors, placed under the influence of one pole (say, North pole) carry the
current in one direction (outward). Whereas, the other conductors placed under the
influence of other pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in opposite direction as
shown in Fig. 4.6. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its direction is marked by the
arrow-head Fr. This rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm and
torque (Te) develops. Thus, rotor rotates.

Fig-4.6 Motor Action (Position of main field F m and rotor field Fr)
It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in
each conductor or coil side must be reversed when it passes through the magnetic
neutral axis (MNA). This is achieved with the help of a commutator.
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of
current in each armature conductor when it passes through the M.N.A. to obtain
continuous torque.
Back emf
It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors, placed in
the main magnetic field, torque develops and armature rotates. Simultaneously, the
armature conductors cut across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in these
conductors.
It can be seen that the direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied
voltage. That is why this induced emf is called back emf (Eb). The magnitude of this
induced emf is given by the relation;

𝐸𝑏
𝑁 shows that speed of motor is inversely proportional to magnetic field or flux.


Significance of Back emf

The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
Where, Ia = armature current; V = applied voltage;
Eb = back emf and Ra = armature resistance
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed decreases which
reduces the value of Eb. As a result the value (V – Eb) increases which consequently
increases Ia. Hence, motor draws extra current from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the extra load.

Torque produced in DC motor:

Assuming the losses to be negligibly small the power developed by the de motor is
given by
Electrical Power P = E b * Ia = PZN*Ia/60A
Mechanical Power P = ω T = 2πNT/60 (as ω = 2πN/60 where N=speed in rpm)
Hence PZN*Ia/60A = 2πNT/60
or T = PZ*Ia/2πA = K  Ta
where K = PZ/2πA constant for a dc machine.

Hence torque in a de machine is proportional to the product of flux per pole in the
air gap and the armature current
Types of DC Motors:
On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, DC motors can
be classified as;

1. Separately excited DC motors: The conventional diagram of a separately

excited DC motor is shown Fig. 4.7.
Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2vb (where vb is voltage drop per brush)

2. Self excited DC motors: These motors can be further classified as;

(i) Shunt motors: Their conventional diagram is shown in Fig.4.8. The field
winding is connected in parallel with the armature. Its voltage equation
will be;
Ish = V/Rsh
Ia = IL – Ish
Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2vb (where vb is voltage drop per brush)

Fig-4.7 Separately excited DC Fig-4.8 DC shunt motor Fig-4.9 DC series motor

motor

(ii) Series motor: Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 4.9. In dc series
motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current. The current
passing through the series field winding, armature winding and load will
be same.
Important relations:
IL = Ia = Ise
Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2vb

(iii) Compound motor: Its conventional diagram (for long shunt) is shown in
Fig. 4.10
Ish = V/Rsh ; Ia = IL – Ish; Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2vb
The compound motor can be further subdivided as;
(a) Cumulative compound motors: In these motors, the flux produced
by both the windings is in the same direction, i.e.,
r = sh + se
 (b) Differential compound motors: In these motors, the flux produced
by the series field winding is opposite to the flux produced by the
shunt field winding, i.e.,
r = sh - se

Fig-4.10 DC compound motor

Characteristics of DC Motors:
The performance of a DC motor can be easily judged from its characteristic
curves, known as motor characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those
curves which show relation between the two quantities. On the basis of these
quantities, the following characteristics can be obtained:
1. Speed and Armature current i.e., N – Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn
between speed N and armature current Ia. It is also known as speed characteristics.
2. Torque and Armature current i.e., T–Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn
between torque developed in the armature T and armature current Ia. It is also
known as electrical characteristic.
3. Speed and Torque i.e., N–T characteristics: It is the curve drawn between speed
N and torque developed in the armature T. It is also known as mechanical
characteristics.
The following important relations must be kept in mind while discussing the motor
characteristics:
Eb  N or N  Eb/ and T   Ia
a) Characteristics of Separately excited DC motors /DC Shunt Motors:
N-Ia Characteristic: The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by;
N  Eb/ 
The flux  and back e.m.f. E b are almost constant under normal conditions.
Therefore, speed of a shunt motor will remain constant as the armature current
varies (dotted line AB). But, when load is increased, E b (= V- IaRa) and  decrease due
to the armature resistance drop and armature reaction respectively. However, E b
decreases slightly more than  so that the speed of the motor decreases slightly with
load (line AC).