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The Rolling Stones
in Concert,
1962–1982
This page intentionally left blank
The Rolling Stones
in Concert,
1962–1982
A Show-by-Show History

Ian M. RuSTen

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina
 LIbRaRy of CongReSS CaTaLoguIng-In-PubLICaTIon DaTa
names: Rusten, Ian, author.
Title: The Rolling Stones in concert, 1962–1982 : a show-by-show history /
Ian M. Rusten.

♾
Description: Jefferson, north Carolina : Mcfarland & Company, 2018 |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCn 2018043226 | ISbn 9781476673929 (softcover : acid free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Rolling Stones—Performances. | Rolling
Stones—History—Chronology. | Rock musicians—england—biography.
Classification: LCC ML421.R64 R9 2018 | DDC 782.42166092/2 [b] —dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018043226

bRITISH LIbRaRy CaTaLoguIng DaTa aRe avaILabLe

ISBN (print) 978-1-4766-7392-9
ISBN (ebook) 978-1-4766-3443-2

© 2018 Ian M. Rusten. all rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

front cover: e Rolling Stones (from le, Ronnie Wood, Keith Richards,
Charlie Watts, Mick Jagger and bill Wyman), 1978 (Photofest)

Printed in the united States of america

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
 To my brilliant,
kind and beautiful wife, Rebekah,
who has helped me more than words can express.
Thank you for your patience and support.

I also dedicate this to my three incredible daughters,

Hannah, Kate and erin.
I love you all.
 acknowledgments

I wish to thank Ira Korman for the use of his mem-

orabilia collection and all the university librarians who
aided me in this project. I’d also like to thank the
Rolling Stones for their music, which is an inspiration
to the world. I wish to acknowledge friends that helped
me translate foreign articles into english: Katti Wachs,
Javier goldaraz, Michael Rohattyn, Daniel Shabasson
and gabriella Skwara. Special thanks to the Witter and
Coleman families for their support and to my wife and
children, who always encourage me.

vi
Table of Contents

Acknowledgments vi
Preface 1

1. 1962 3
2. 1963 12
3. 1964 47
4. 1965 88
5. 1966 126
6. 1967 147
7. 1968 158
8. 1969 164
9. 1970 179
10. 1971 188
11. 1972 194
12. 1973 206
13. 1974 221
14. 1975 225
15. 1976 238
16. 1977 250
17. 1978 254
18. 1979 266
19. 1980 275
20. 1981 277
21. 1982 294

vii
viii Table of Contents

Appendix 1.
BBC Radio and Radio Luxembourg Appearances,
1963–1965 305
Appendix 2.
Television Appearances,
1963–1978 308
Bibliography 323
Index 325
 Preface

for more than fifty years the Rolling Stones have been performing concerts and
pleasing audiences around the world. from their humble beginnings playing in small
clubs in 1962, the Stones developed into the acknowledged “greatest rock ’n’ roll band in
the world.” They have played shows in numerous countries, including multiple tours of
the united States, australia and europe.
yet, there is no book that provides a comprehensive overview and discusses all their
tours over the years in detail. The Rolling Stones in Concert, 1962–1982: A Show-by-Show
History rectifies this.
Compiling this book required tremendous research. I visited many libraries and
pored through old newspapers and periodicals to obtain long forgotten reviews, adver-
tisements and interviews. I looked through many old magazines, such as Melody Maker,
Datebook and Hit Parader, to find interesting articles. I also read virtually every book
that I could find about the Stones to make sure that I covered everything of importance
that I could. finally, I sought out and listened to numerous audiotapes and videos of
their concerts.
The book starts with a brief opening chapter that introduces the Stones starting
with the original band members, brian Jones, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, bill Wyman
and Charlie Watts. The introduction also provides a close look at each of their life stories
from their childhoods in World War II britain to the year 1962, when they met and
formed the band. The body of the book contains individual chapters that each focus on
a specific year. Chapter 1 begins in 1962 and Chapter 21 ends in 1982. each chapter is a
comprehensive chronicle of all of the shows, with an introductory essay that provides an
in-depth look at other events in their career that year, such as record releases and notable
moments in their personal lives. Two additional chapters (22 and 23) briefly cover the
Stones’ radio recordings, some of which were performed before live audiences, and per-
formances on television shows.
as the story progresses, we watch the Stones rise from a club band in 1962 to one
of the leading concert attractions in the uK by 1963. The book follows the Stones as they
conquer the united States during 1964–65 and ultimately become a global phenomenon.
between 1962 and 1967, the Stones toured extensively across the globe and the book
covers all of the shows during this era, including the band’s first appearances in new
york, Los angeles, Paris, Stockholm and Sydney.
The year 1967 saw the Stones beset by personal problems, including well-known
drug busts and interpersonal conflicts between guitarists Keith Richards and brian Jones.
following a controversial european tour, which included a famous show behind the Iron

1
2 Preface

Curtain in Poland, the Stones took a two-year break from the road to rest and record
music. founding member brian Jones declined in health and involvement in the band
during this period and was replaced by blues guitarist Mick Taylor in 1969. Jones tragically
died that July and the band dedicated their legendary concert at London’s Hyde Park to
his memory.
Taylor had joined just as the Stones began touring intently again and took part in
their notorious free concert at altamont Speedway in California that December. This
concert is chronicled in the Maysles brothers’ film Gimme Shelter. Hells angels, hired to
act as security, murdered a concertgoer, an event captured on film. The concert ended
the 1960s on a depressing note for the Stones. but they bounced back and toured almost
every year in the 1970s, while making a number of classic albums, including Exile on
Main Street and Sticky Fingers. They survived yet another personnel change, when Taylor
left in 1974 and Ron Wood took his place. He performed with the Stones on their 1975
tour of the u.S. and all subsequent tours around the world. This book provides previously
untold details and information about the concerts throughout the 1970s.
Rolling Stones tours attracted much media attention and were always eventful. The
Stones seemed to generate controversy everywhere they went. for example, on the 1975
tour they had a giant inflatable phallus that would rise from the stage when they sang
“Star Star.” Police in some Southern towns threatened to put the band in jail if they used
the device. and who can forget when Mick and Keith were arrested on their way to a
concert in boston in 1972 and the mayor had to use his political skills to bail them out
and prevent rioting in town?
There have of course been numerous books about the Rolling Stones. The Stones
themselves have written about their lives: guitarist Keith Richards published a memoir
(Life), bassist bill Wyman wrote two books on his time with the band (Stone Alone and
Rolling with the Stones) and all the Stones participated in a short biography (According
to the Rolling Stones). none of these books covers the tours in depth as this book does,
and the books seldom discuss individual concerts in detail. The Stones have also attracted
biographers, including Philip norman (The Stones) and victor bockris (Keith Richards:
The Biography). These books focus on the lives of individual Stones but spend little time
on the Stones’ performing careers.
There have also been coffee table books of the Stones by noted photographers like
gered Mankowitz and Mark Hayward. These books are wonderful but are mainly pictorial
and have little in common with the present work. The Stones’ recording career has been
covered in detail by Martin elliot in his excellent The Rolling Stones: Complete Recording
Sessions, 1962–2012. His book is similar in concept to this one but focuses on recording
sessions, not concerts.
Due to the extensive number of shows that the Stones played over the years and the
details provided in The Rolling Stones in Concert, 1962–1982, this book covers only the
first twenty-one years of the Stones’ career.
I hope that you enjoy this book. If you are a fan and attended some of these shows
then hopefully it brings back great memories. If you are new to the band, I hope it encour-
ages you to seek out the music discussed. Happy listening.
 CHAPTER 1

1962

The Rolling Stones formed in early 1962 when a number of fellow blues enthusiasts,
who felt they were the only people in England who appreciated the music, suddenly real-
ized that there were other people just like them. One such blues enthusiast was Lewis
Brian Hopkin-Jones. Brian was born on February 28, 1942, in the genteel town of Chel-
tenham to parents of Welsh ancestry. He came from a musical family and developed an
aptitude for playing at a young age. He became a skilled pianist and played clarinet in
the school orchestra. Around 1957, Brian became obsessed with jazz, especially the records
of legendary alto saxophonist Charlie Parker and convinced his parents to buy him a sax.
By 1958 he’d formed his own jazz band and played at a local club four times a week. In
addition to the sax, his parents bought him a guitar and he quickly mastered that as well.
Brian was good at school but was a non-conformist and rebelled against the stuffy tra-
ditions of 1950s Britain. Blonde and good looking, he had no trouble attracting women
and had a string of conquests by the time he was nineteen, as well as numerous illegitimate
children. Kicked out by his parents, he got his own flat with a friend. Brian took various
odd jobs, but showed little inclination to take up a profession. But, in the fall of 1960,
Brian’s life took a dramatic turn when he attended a concert by the Chris Barber Band.
Barber and his group played traditional Dixieland jazz, but they also dabbled in
country blues, which in England was called skiffle. The Barber band had become nation-
ally known in the UK in 1956 when their guitarist Lonnie Donegan hit the top of the
charts with “Rock Island Line.” Barber was devoted to spreading interest in authentic
American R&B and found a willing convert in Brian Jones. After seeing Barber’s band,
Brian lost all interest in jazz and became a blues devotee. As he related in the Rolling
Stones Book, “Fact is that the really great rhythm ’n’ blues stars all affected me—made
me want to listen to them all the time, even to the extent of not worrying much about
any other work.” But R&B enthusiasts were sparse in Cheltenham and Brian was eager
to meet some kindred souls.
This was not such an easy task at that time. As Bill Wyman recalled on BBC Radio,
“It was kind of an underground music. We knew about it because of people that came
here and toured, like Big Bill Broonzy and Muddy Waters came with Buddy Guy in that
’61–’62 period and Sonny Boy Williamson came a bit later. But there were very few people
coming over and there was no availability of those records to anyone in the public, in
England anyways.” So, in the fall of 1961 when Brian heard that the Chris Barber Band
was playing in Cheltenham again, he and his friend, fellow blues enthusiast Dick Hattrell,
made sure they were at the gig. By this time, the Barber Band included vocalist “Long”
John Baldry, harmonica player Cyril Davies and guitarist Alexis Korner, who’d play an

3
4 The Rolling Stones in Concert, 1962–1982

important role in the birth of the Stones. He recalled his first meeting with Brian on
BBC Radio. “Brian came up to me with a friend of his and started talking about blues.
He said he’d always wanted to know about blues. He just came into the dressing room
and we started chatting…. I gave him my phone number and address and said if he ever
came up to London (he should look me up)… And about a fortnight later, lo and behold,
Brian turned up on the doorstep having decided to come up to London for the week-
end.”
Brian stayed at Korner’s flat, poring over his impressive collection of R&B records.
He was so taken with the recordings of guitarist Elmore James that when he arrived back
in Cheltenham he bought an electric guitar and began practicing James’ unusual open-
D tuning. By early 1962 Brian had mastered James’ slide guitar style and was raring to
play. He sat in with local bands but was eager to get away from Cheltenham. When he
learned that Korner and Cyril Davies had formed a band called Blues Incorporated, Brian
hitchhiked to London to audition. He attended Blues Incorporated’s gig at the Ealing
Club in West London on March 17, 1962. It was here that Brian first met drummer Charles
Robert Watts (born June 2, 1941), a twenty-year-old jazz enthusiast from Wembley with
little knowledge of rock or blues music.
Charlie attended Harrow Art School and worked during the day at an advertising
agency. But he’d fallen in love with the drums and he spent all his free time playing with
local bands. Charlie impressed Brian immediately and Brian, who sat in with the band
the following weekend, impressed Charlie. Slide guitar was almost unknown in England
and Brian showed a deft touch. In deference to his musical idol, Brian adopted the nom-
de-plume of Elmore Lewis. He was invited to sit in again with Blues Incorporated when
they played the Marquee Club on
April 7. It was here that he
encountered Mick Jagger and
Keith Richards.
Michael Philip Jagger (born
July 26, 1943) grew up in Dart-
ford, 16 miles southeast of Lon-
don. The son of a physical
education teacher, Mick was a
sports fanatic. By the late 1950s
he was also a huge follower of
rock music. Mick recalled on
BBC Radio, “I’d never had heroes
except in rock music. So my
heroes were Little Richard, Bo
Diddley and then later on
Muddy Waters and Chuck Berry.
Chuck Berry was, I guess, a hero.
One imagined his kind of
lifestyle.” An outgoing, confident
young man, Mick acquired a gui-
tar and played in various skiffle
Early advertisement for the Stones (collection of Ira Kor- combos in the Dartford area.
man). Mick and his mates delved deep
 1962 5

into the music and sought out the roots of rock. As Mick’s friend Dick Taylor recalled in
Mojo, “Everyone at school seemed to have some kind of musical passion and Mick, Robert
Beckwith and I discovered R&B. I remember Chas McDevitt playing Bo Diddley on his
BBC Radio show, Skiffle Club, and thinking that was something else. Plus, my sister used
to listen to Big Bill Broonzy. Gradually this all came together and we started to hear
American R&B records for the first time.”
In 1961 Mick graduated from Grammar School and earned a scholarship to the pres-
tigious London School of Economics, but music was his real passion. He occupied his
free time jamming with Taylor and other friends and spent the money he earned from
temporary jobs on blues records he sent away to America for. Indeed, he had a few records
under his arm when he bumped into Keith Richards (the correct spelling of his last name
though, at the suggestion of Andrew Oldham, Keith dropped the S during the 1960s) at
the Dartford railway station in October 1961.
Keith (born December 18, 1943) was also from Dartford and had known Mick since
1951, when the two attended the same primary school. Like Mick, Keith had acquired a
guitar and was obsessed with rock music, especially Chuck Berry. But Keith was shy and
seldom played in public until he met Dick Taylor at Sidcup Art College in 1959. Taylor
recalled, “Everyone who had a guitar used to gather in the gents cloakroom and play at
lunchtime. That’s where I got to meet Keith Richards. I kept asking him to come along
and meet Mick and the other guys but he said he was too shy.” So it was not until the
fateful railway encounter in October 1961 that Jagger-Richards reconnected. As Keith
recalled in Rolling Stone in 1971, “He found out that I could play a little and he could sing
a bit…. We’d all go to Dick Taylor’s house, in his back room, some other cats would come
along and play, and we’d try to lay some of this Little Walter stuff and Chuck Berry stuff.
No drummer or anything, just two guitars and a little amplifier.” They decided to form
a band, Little Boy Blue and the Blue Boys, though Taylor considered it just a lark. “We
didn’t even consider playing in public. It was just for fun.”
The group lacked money for gear but Mick convinced his parents to loan them
some. Once properly equipped, they recorded a few rehearsals and a reel-to-reel of one
came to light in 1995 (it was sold at Sotheby’s and bought by Mick). The tape contained
Berry songs like “Beautiful Delilah” and “Around and Around,” covers of an early Elvis
recording, “You’re Right, I’m Left, She’s Gone” (which Taylor recalled as a favorite of
Keith’s) and Ritchie Valens’ 1958 hit “La Bamba,” and a few blues like “Down the Road
Apiece.” When Little Boy Blue and the Blues Boys heard that Alexis Korner was playing
authentic blues at the Marquee in London, they made sure they attended and were blown
away when “Elmore” Lewis played slide guitar.
Dick Taylor recalled on Dutch TV, “Mick and Keith and I sat and watched Brian
Jones and our mouths fell open. He played an acoustic guitar with a pickup and he played
slide. He was absolutely brilliant.” Mick related to Rob Chapman of Mojo, “He picked up
this Elmore James guitar thing which really knocked me out when I first heard him play
it. And it was really good. He really had that down and he was very exciting. The sound
was right. The glissandos were all right. There was really a good gut feeling when he
played it in the pub.” Mick, Keith and Dick were enamored with Brian, who, though he
was roughly the same age, seemed more worldly and sophisticated. As Keith recalled in
1971, “He was a good guitar player then. He had the touch and was just peaking. He was
already out of school. He’d been kicked out of university and had a variety of jobs. He
was already into living on his own and trying to find a pad for his old lady. Whereas
6 The Rolling Stones in Concert, 1962–1982

Mick and I were just kicking around in back rooms, still living at home.” Brian was far
more serious about music than his new friends.
By April 1962 he’d decided to be a professional. He told fellow blues enthusiast Paul
Jones, “I’m going to start a band and I’m going to become rich and famous. Do you want
to be my singer?” Jones lacked Brian’s faith in music as a viable career and turned him
down. But Brian was undeterred. After moving to London with his girlfriend Pat Andrews
and their young child, Julian, he placed an ad in the May 2, 1962, Jazz News. It stated:
“Guitarist and vocalist forming R&B band, require Harmonica and/or Tenor Sax, Piano,
Bass and Drums. Must be keen to rehearse. Plenty of interesting work available.” Brian
began auditioning musicians at a local pub. The first person to turn up was a Scottish
jazz pianist, who’d grown up in Cheam, Surrey. Ian “Stu” Stewart (born in 1938) was a
gifted musician who fell in love with blues and jazz music in his teens. He was greatly
respected by his contemporaries. Pianist Ben Waters commented in Mojo, “When he was
in the band, they really did swing. He made a big difference.” Stu recognized that Brian
was also gifted, even if the two didn’t really get on with each other. Stu decided to throw
in his lot with him and they began seeking other musicians. Brian tried to get singer
Brian Knight (of the band Blues by Six) to join but he said no. But by that time, another
viable singer had emerged.
After seeing Brian perform, Little Boy Blue and the Blue Boys sent their audition
tape to Alexis Korner. One night in May, Mick Jagger sang onstage with Blues Incorpo-
rated. From the beginning, Mick showed great confidence onstage, dancing while he
sang and shaking his hair. Blues enthusiast Paul Jones recalled on BBC Radio, “He
had that stuff much more down than anybody else did. I mean when you looked at
people like Brian Knight and me, we just kind of stood there with our eyes closed. He
used it to his advantage and had half the world imitating him within a matter of months.”
Brian was impressed and in June he made a fateful decision. Dick Taylor recalled, “Brian
actually asked Mick to join his band and Mick said he wouldn’t go without Keith. And
then … they said why don’t you join the band and play bass. So we went out and I bought
a bass.”
The proto–Stones rehearsed every Wednesday and Friday at the Bricklayers Arms,
a pub in Central London. The band quickly gelled around the two-guitar interplay
between Brian and Keith, but lacked a steady drummer. They coveted Charlie Watts but
as Ian Stewart recalled on BBC Radio, “We didn’t really get Charlie with us permanently
for a long time because he was playing with another group that was making money and
Charlie needed the money. So we must have used eight or nine different drummers.”
Future Kink Mick Avory rehearsed with them on a few occasions and may have played
at their first gig (though the matter remains disputed) on July 12, 1962, at the Marquee
Club, a popular jazz venue owned by Chris Barber and Harold Pendleton. They played
at the club thanks to Alexis Korner. His All-Stars were asked to make a BBC broadcast
and he convinced the owners to let Brian and Mick fill in. The July 7, 1962, Disc Weekly
announced that Korner’s group would not play and explained, “Their place will be taken
by a new rhythm and blues group, Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones, together with
another group headed by Long John Baldry.” The band name was coined on the spur of
the moment by Brian, who cribbed it from a Muddy Waters song. Not everyone loved
it. Stu recalled, “I said it was a terrible name. It sounded like the name of an Irish show
band or something that ought to be playing at the Savoy.”
Dick Taylor recalled on Dutch TV that the crowd’s response that first night “was
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 In rubbing the salt into the pockets be careful to put the salt into
every part, otherwise meat will spoil in places missed.
Bellies require less salt, the fixed rule being 42%. They are not
usually overhauled but are frozen at cure, if shipping is deferred.

FIG. 147.—SQUARE EXPORT SHORT RIB.

Color.—A great deal depends upon the color of English meats. The
trade demands a bright, attractive appearance in same and
considerable saltpetre is necessary. Four ounces of saltpetre to the
100 pounds of meat on cuts weighing from three to five pieces per
100 pounds, to as high as six ounces per 100 pounds on smaller
cuts, should be used. The salt and saltpetre should be thoroughly
mixed before applying.
 FIG. 148.—WILTSHIRE SIDE.

Piling.—Use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the air, for
they will not develop a desirable color when they are exposed to the
air. After the meats are all piled evenly, the edges should be gone
over, and any exposed parts covered with a fine sprinkling of salt.
Sides are piled so as to make a cup of the hollow portion with a
tendency for the pickle to drain slightly toward the back. Hams are
piled shank down on an angle of about 45°.

FIG. 149.—SQUARE SHORT CLEAR.

 Overhauling.—English middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty
pounds average, and long cut hams from twelve to fourteen pounds
and heavier, should be overhauled at from eight to twelve days old,
salting them as before described. Do not overhaul English meats
unless necessary in order to hold them after they are cured.

SHIPPING AGE.
Oct. 15 March 1
Average to March 1 to Oct. 15
Product wt. lbs. Days Days
Bellies ... 15 to 25 15 to 25
Boneless backs ... 15 to 25 15 to 25
Cumberlands 20-24 20 to 25 20 to 25
Cumberlands 24-30 20 to 25 25 to 30
Cumberlands 30-40 25 to 30 25 to 30
Long clears under 30 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long clears over 30 20 to 25 25 to 30
Dublins and long ribs ... 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long cut hams 10-14 20 to 25 20 to 25
Long cut hams 14-18 25 to 30 25 to 30

Shipping Ages.—The table on the preceding page shows the ages

at which English meats can be safely shipped during seasons from
October 15 to March 1, and from March 1 to October 15.
These ages for shipping should be followed closely, but when
necessary the following exception may be made without detriment.
From October 15 to March 1, shortest shipping age may be
reduced five days.
Boxing Meats.—Meats to be packed in borax, cured as above,
should be put in a plain cold pickle 100-degree strong, then scraped
on the skin side and wiped with cloths wrung out of hot water. If the
meats are old and have a slippery appearance, they should be
scrubbed with a brush in warm pickle and wiped afterwards. They
should then be rubbed in borax with the rind placed upon a grating
and the surplus borax brushed off the skin side of the meat, using a
fine brush for so doing. It is customary to use from five and one-half
to six and one-half pounds of borax per 300 pounds of meat. Meats
to be packed in salt should not be washed. The skin and edges of the
meat should be thoroughly scraped and then rubbed in fine salt
before being put in the boxes. Meats are nailed under heavy pressure
so as to exclude all the air possible.
Wiltshires.—Singed Wiltshires, a cut which was revived during the
“Great War,” are made from hogs suitable for Cumberlands. Weights
vary by averages. The hogs are singed during slaughter, cured in
plain pickle, and shipped on ten days’ pickling, packed in dry salt.

LONG CUT HAMS AND CUMBERLAND TESTS.

Av. wt.
live Average Per cent Per
hogs, weight cuts, Per cent Cumber- Per cent cent
lbs. lbs. hams lands miscellaneous total
16- P. S. lard 9.86
190 { Long cuts 18
Cumberlands 36- } 18.37 40.43
{ Raw leaf 3.59
Trimmings
} 73.97
42 1.92
14- P. S. lard 7.42
168 { Long cuts 16
Cumberlands 32- } 18.66 39.17
{ Raw leaf 3.30
Trimmings
} 70.47
38 1.92
12- P. S. lard 8.48
136 { Long cuts 14
Cumberlands 24- } 18.45 37.48
{ Raw leaf 3.38
Trimmings
} 69.34
28 1.55

Test.—This test may be of service. It shows the percentage of

yields of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and
Cumberlands, also average weights.
Pig Feet.—Usually only the front foot is used as it is a better
shaped foot to prepare than the hind foot. The hind feet are more or
less disfigured and out of condition by having the gam strings
opened in order to hang the hog on the sticks. The hind foot being
used largely for making a low grade of glue. It can, however, be used
in boneless pig’s feet.
Preparation.—The feet are scalded, after which the hoofs are
removed and the feet are shaved and cleaned, put into a plain salt
pickle, 90-degree strong by salometer test, and to this pickle should
be added six ounces of saltpetre to each 100 pounds of feet. The
feet should be left in this curing pickle for from six to eight days, or
until they show a bright red appearance when cooked. If this red
appearance does not extend clear through the feet after being
cooked, it shows that they are not fully cured. They should not be
left in the pickle longer than necessary to fully cure them for if
heavily salted it has the effect of making them break in the cooking
water.
Cooking.—After properly cured in the salt pickle the feet should be
cooked in a wooden vat (an iron vat discoloring them) provided with
a false bottom about six inches above the bottom, so that the direct
heat from the steam pipe does not come in contact with the feet.
The water should be brought to a temperature of 200° to 206° F. and
held at this temperature until the feet are sufficiently cooked. The
water should never be brought to the boiling point, as the feet will
become badly broken, which greatly injures their appearance.
After the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly chilled in cold
water, they should be put into a white wine vinegar pickle 45-degree
strong, it being preferable to pack feet which are to be used at once
in open vats in a refrigerated room held at a temperature of 38° to
40° F. Where feet are to be held for some months before using it is
advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after filling the tierces
with vinegar of 45-degree strength. The packages should be stored
in a temperature 40° F. When held this way it will be found that the
feet have absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked
increase in weight is obtained. There should be a gain of from 10 to
15 per cent in weight at the end of three months.
Tests.—Prepared pig’s feet at certain seasons of the year are
difficult of sale and there are times when it pays better to tank them
or use them for glue purposes. The following tests on rough
uncleaned fore and hind feet will show the yield when tanked.
Percentages in tests are correct. The prices are those ruling at the
time tests were made:

TEST ON TANKED PIGS FEET.

Total weight of front feet tanked 1,070 pounds cooked in tank five hours at
forty pounds pressure:
Sixty pounds hock meat, 5.61 per cent, at 3c per pound $ 1.80
Prime steam lard, 138 pounds, 12.90 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt. 12.90
Tankage (dry basis), 125 pounds, 11.68 per cent, at $17.50 per ton 1.09
Total $15.79
Gross value, $1.47 per cwt.

Weight hind feet to tank, 996 pounds, cooked in test tank five hours, with forty
pounds pressure:
Prime steam lard, 163 pounds, 16.37 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt. $15.24
Tankage (dry basis), 13.76 per cent, at $17.50 per ton 1.19
Total $16.43
Gross value, $1.62 per cwt.

The following tests show costs, in detail, of pig’s feet put up in

different sized packages, costs being figured at the regular Chicago
market prices at the time these tests were made:

TEST ON 483 PIECES OR 500 POUNDS PIGS FORE FEET.

Debit:
Cost of 500 pounds pigs fore feet at 1¹⁄₈c per pound $5.63
Shaving, hand and machine, 32c per 100 pieces 1.55
Pulling toes, 5c per 100 pieces .24
Counting, pickling and cooking .20
Splitting, 2c per 100 pounds .10
Miscellaneous labor .10
Fifty-five pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound .14
Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound .10
Administrative expense at 47c per 100 pounds on 300 pounds
produced 1.41
Total $9.47
 Credit:
Pigs feet oil, 18 pounds at $5.60 per cwt. $1.00
Pigs feet bones, 58 pounds at ³⁄₄c per pound .43
Pigs feet trimmings, 13 pounds at 1¹⁄₄c per pound .13
Total $1.56
Total net cost of 300 pounds of prepared feet 7.91
Cost per pound, including administrative expense, $0.026.
Green weight, 500 pounds; cleaned weight, 450 pounds;
split weight, 300 pounds.

Pig Tongues.—Various uses are made of this piece of meat. They

are very extensively used in canning factories where they are put up
and known as “lunch tongue”; they are also used in different kinds of
sausage, and are put up to quite an extent in vinegar pickle. When
handled in the latter manner the following suggestions are of
practical value.
The tongues after being trimmed should be cured in a 75-degree
plain salt pickle using three ounces of saltpetre to 100 pounds of
tongue. After the tongues are fully cured, which will require from
eight to twelve days, they are scalded, the outer surface of the
tongue being scraped off. In some instances the scalding is done
before the tongues are put in the pickle. Either way is proper. After
being scraped and cleaned they are cooked as desired and afterward
pickled in a white wine vinegar pickle of 45-degree strength. The
following tests will show the cost of tongues packed in different sized
packages, the cost being determined by the cost of meat and
supplies at the time tests were made:

TEST ON 1,000 PIECES, OR 910 POUNDS PIG TONGUES.

Debit:
910 pounds pig tongues, at 6¹⁄₄c per pound $56.88
Scraping at 15c per 100 pieces 1.50
Counting, cooking, etc., three hours at 18c per hour .54
Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces .50
Miscellaneous labor .20
Administrative expense, 47c per 100 on 560 pounds produced 2.63
 Total $62.25
Credit:
Green weight, 910 pounds; cooked weight, 560 pounds; shrinkage, 38 per
cent.
Trimming 112 pounds at 1¹⁄₂c 1.68
Net cost $60.57
Cost per pound, 10⁴⁄₅c; cost handling per cwt., including administrative expense,
$0.665 per 100 pounds finished.

COST OF ONE BARREL PIG TONGUES PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET.

190 pounds pig tongues at 10⁴⁄₅c per pound $20.52
One barrel .78
Packing, one-half hour at 17¹⁄₂c per hour .09
Pickle, ten gallons at 2¹⁄₂c per gallon .25
Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour .04
Spices, 2c .02
Miscellaneous labor .03
Total cost per barrel $21.73

Formula for Export Hog Tongue Pickle.—There is at times quite a

demand for fresh pig tongues in Liverpool and other foreign points,
in which case the trade demands that they arrive there without being
salt-cured. The following formula will be found very valuable for this
purpose and also point out how to carry tongues without salting
them, when it is desired to do so: Use 116 pounds of boracic acid,
fifty-eight pounds of borax, twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and
seven and one-quarter pounds of saltpetre.
The method of mixing is as follows: The boracic acid and borax are
put into a vat containing sixty gallons of water. The vat should be
connected with steam supply so that it can be brought to the boiling
point, cooking same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour. The
salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred until
thoroughly dissolved. After the solution has been allowed to cool,
add sufficient cold water to give it a strength of 21 degrees by
salometer test. Chill the solution to a temperature of 38° F. The
tongues should be trimmed and thoroughly chilled, it being essential
that they are in perfect condition. They should then be packed in a
tierce, after which the tierce is filled with the preservative. Tongue
should be shipped in refrigerator cars where the temperature is not
allowed to go above 38° F.
Pig Snouts.—These consist of the snout of the hog together with
the upper lips and front part of the nose. During preparation they are
handled very much in the same manner as pig’s feet. They are first
shaved and cleaned, afterward scalded, removing the outer skin or
membrane of the nose. Then they are cured, using a 90-degree plain
salt pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre to 100
pounds of snouts. After they are fully cured, which will require from
five to eight days, they should be cooked in a wooden vat to the
desired degree of tenderness after which they are chilled in cold
water and pickled in white wine vinegar of 45-degree strength. The
following tests show the cost of preparing pig snouts in different
sized packages:

TEST ON 1,060 PIECES, OR 1,000 POUNDS PIG SNOUTS.

Debit:
Cost of 1,000 pounds pig snouts at 2¹⁄₂c per pound $25.00
Shaving at 40c per 100 pieces 4.24
Labor, trucking, cooking, inspecting, pickling, etc. 1.10
100 pounds salt at ¹⁄₄c per pound .25
Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound .10
Administrative expenses, 47c per 100 pounds on 610 pounds
production 2.87
Total $33.56
Credit:
Trimmings, 90 pounds at 2c per pound 1.80
Net cost $31.76
Cost per pound, 5¹⁄₅c; cost of handling, administrative expense,
85⁶⁄₁₀c per cwt.
Green weight, 1,000 pounds; cleaned weight, 900 pounds;
cooked weight, 610 pounds.
 CHAPTER XXIII.
LARD, COMPOUND AND GREASES
Historical — Quantity and Quality — Neutral Lard — Kettle Rendered Lard — Prime
Steam Lard — Refined Lard — Bleaching Lard — Filter Press — Lard Roll — Lard
Packing — Compound Lard — Cottonseed Oil — Refining Crude Oil — Deodorizing
Cottonseed Oil — Pressing Temperatures — Lard Oil — Treatment for Lard Grease.

Historical.—The refining of lard in packing houses is

comparatively recent, and many people will be surprised to know
that even the largest packers only added lard refining to their
business within the past twenty-five to thirty years. Previous to that
time lard refineries were operated by independent firms, who bought
their supply of prime “steam” lard, converting it into the different
grades in their own establishments. In the natural evolution of the
business this branch was taken up by the packers.
Before the advent of present methods, lard refining consisted in
pressing from the lard about 30 to 40 per cent lard oil, sold for
lubricating and lighting purposes, etc., and mixing the stearine with
straight lard, making a high grade pure lard. At this time the method
of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by the use of
caustic soda, pearl ash, lime, alum, or other substances, the
principal ingredient, being caustic soda. The underlying principle is
that alkali, used in proper proportion, saponified the acid in the lard.
This process, however, is a thing of the past.
Quantity and Quality.—As shown in a previous chapter from
thirteen to fifteen percent of the live weight of the hog is fresh lard,
consequently where large numbers of hogs are killed the
manufacture of lard is an important factor in the packing business.
The principal grades are known as neutral lard, kettle rendered lard,
prime steam lard, refined lard and compound lard.
Tallow and stearine also enter into the manufacture of refined and
compound lards.
Neutral Lard.—When oleomargarine was first manufactured it
was considered necessary to use natural butter in the mixture in
order to give it the proper consistency, as the oleo oil was grainy and
coarse, therefore sufficient natural butter was added to change that
condition. Some one conceived the idea of using neutral lard made
from leaf lard in place of natural butter in oleomargarine. When this
was worked out successfully the term oleomargarine practically
disappeared and the term “butterine” was substituted. In most of
the butterine made today no natural butter is used.
The conditions in making oleo oil and tallows have their parallel in
neutral lard and kettle rendered lard. When leaf lard is cooked for
kettle rendered lard, if a temperature of from 250° to 260° F. is
obtained the tissues of the lard are burned or partially consumed,
this heat giving it a flavor which is called “high kettle rendered”
flavor. When it is made into neutral this condition is reversed, the
lard being melted at a temperature of from 126° to 128° F. At this
temperature no burning of tissues is possible, hence the oil extract is
neutral in every sense of the word, in color, flavor and smell. With
these three essential points the material readily forms the chief
substance for butterine by adding milk or cream and oleo oil and
cotton seed oil, as desired.
Manufacture of Neutral.—The following steps define the
process of manufacture necessary to produce neutral:
Chilling.—The leaves as pulled from the hogs are rapidly sent to a
cooling room to be thoroughly chilled. The leaves are spread
separately in flat sheets on metal supports, which are preferable to
wood. If it is chilled too slowly a strong “hoggy” flavor is developed,
which it is impossible to eradicate from the fresh product. The leaf
lard should be chilled for twenty-four hours in a temperature of 32°
to 34° F.
Melting.
—It is put through a hasher of the Enterprise type to an open top
water jacketed kettle, similar in type to an oleo kettle. Frequently the
melting kettle is a wooden vat with a galvanized iron kettle inside,
the space between the wooden vat and the galvanized kettle being
filled with water which is heated to the desired temperature for
melting the product. It is not practicable to use a steam jacket as
the heat would be excessive and it would be difficult to control. This
kettle properly is water jacketed and open top so no pressure is
generated.
In a kettle holding 4,000 to 5,000 pounds, water should be
warmed in the jacket before lard is put in, the agitator started
slowly, not to exceed 10 to 12 revolutions per minute, and the heat
should be regulated so as to have the lard all melted and ready to
drop in one and one-half hours from the time of starting to hash. By
the time the lard is thoroughly melted the temperature should be
126° to 128° F.
Settling.—As soon as the lard is melted it should be drawn off with
a siphon into receiving kettles, which are also jacketed and held at
practically the same temperature. When dropped it should be salted
with one-half to one per cent of fine salt, letting it stand from fifteen
to thirty minutes. In drawing off it should be siphoned through
several layers of cheese cloth, forming a strainer, into receiving
tanks, where it should settle four hours. It is drawn into tierces
through a pipe raised from the bottom to leave one and one-half to
two inches of lard in the tank, care being taken that no “bottoms”
are drawn into the tierce, as these contain tissues which are, for the
most part, undiscernible; also moisture. These ingredients in neutral,
being only partially cooked, immediately begin to decompose. It is a
delicate article to handle and the settling of all impurities is
important. The neutral, when drawn into tierces, should be at a
temperature of from 115° to 118° F.
Storage.—The tierced lard should be kept at a temperature of
about 75° F. for about ten or fifteen hours, and then put into a
cooler with a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. The tierces should
be filled through the bilge and not closed when stored in the first
mentioned temperature, the bungs being left out, while the heat is
permitted to escape, thus carrying with it considerable flavor, and
making the material more neutral than if the tierces were closed as
soon as filled.
No. 2 Neutral Lard.—This is a neutral lard made from back fat.
At times it is profitable to make this product into No. 2 neutral
instead of steam lard, for when the market for No. 1 neutral is
extremely high there is demand for a good No. 2. When making this,
the rind should be skinned off from the back fat, leaving clear back
fat to be hashed for neutral. If the rinds are put in, it gives the
product a “hoggy” flavor, which makes it undesirable. It is hashed
and melted the same as No. 1 neutral, except as to temperature, the
melting point for this being 132° to 134° F., method and apparatus
as described for the making of No. 1 neutral, being applicable to
this.
Test—Pure Steam Lard vs. Neutral.—Below is a test on raw leaf
lard rendered into neutral, showing yield, and percentage of the
neutral lard produced; the scrap and bottoms from the kettle being
run into kettle rendered lard.

TEST ON LEAF LARD RENDERED INTO NEUTRAL.

Raw leaves 8,958 pounds at $ 0.08¹⁄₈ per pound = $727.84
Salt for settling 35 pounds at 4.90 per ton = .09
$727.93
Production:
Neutral lard 7,880 pounds at $0.09125 per pound = $718.96
Neutral bottoms 1,055 pounds
(Run under forty pounds pressure two and one-half hours.)
Prime steam lard 497 pounds at 0.082 per pound = 40.75
Tankage 56 pounds at 18.00 per ton = .45
$760.16
Gain on production $ 32.23
Gain per 100 pounds on raw weight, $0.036.
Percentage Production:
Neutral lard to raw weight 87.97
 Neutral bottoms to raw weight 11.78
Prime steam lard to raw weight 5.55
Tankage to raw weight .63
Prime steam lard to weight of bottoms 47.11
Tankage to weight of bottoms 5.31
Total production of lards 93.52
Total production of raw weights 94.15
Tanking Leaf Lard:
Raw leaves 1,000 pounds at $ 0.08125 per pound = $ 81.25
Prime steam lard 929 pounds at 0.0825 per pound = 76.18
Tankage 5 pounds at 18.00 per ton
Loss on production $ 5.07
Loss per pound on raw weight .0051
Prime steam lard to raw weight, per cent, 92.9.

Test—Chilling and Tanking.—

TEST ON CHILLED LEAF LARD TO DETERMINE VALUE AND YIELD.

Warm leaf lard to cooler 1,000 lbs.
Chilled leaf lard 986 lbs.
Shrinkage, 1.4 per cent 14 lbs.
Weight to test tank, 986 pounds; value per cwt., $7,556.
Yield prime steam lard 94.12 per cent; 928 lbs. at $8.025 per cwt. $74.47
Yield tankage (pressed) .81 per cent; 8 lbs. at 9.89 per ton .04
Total $74.51

Test.—Showing manipulation of 5,000 pounds of back fat to make

neutral, kettle rendered lard and pure steamed lard:

TEST ON 5,000 POUNDS OF BACK FAT CONVERTED TO NO. 2 NEUTRAL KETTLE

RENDERED LARD AND PRIME STEAM LARD.
Net wt. Per
lbs. cent.
Back fat 5,000
Less skins removed 586 = 11.72
 Skinned back fat rendered to No. 2 neutral 4,414
Production No. 2 neutral 1,846 = 41.82
Bottoms left in kettle 2,568
Bottoms from No. 2 neutral rendered to kettle rendered
lard 2,568
Stearine added 270 = 10.51
Total 2,838
Production of kettle rendered lard from above 1,940 = 68.36
Bottoms from No. 2 neutrals 898
Kettle rendered bottoms 673
Loss on production 225
Bottoms from kettle rendered to prime steam lard to tank 673
Production of prime steam lard 307 = 45.62
Skins from back fat rendered to prime steam lard 586
Production of prime steam lard 192 = 32.76

RECAPITULATION.
Net wt.
lbs.
Rendering back fat 5,000
Oleo stearine added 270
Total 5,270
Production No. 2 neutral lard 1,846 pounds
Production kettle rendered lard 1,940 pounds
Production prime steam lard 499 pounds 4,285
Waste 985

Kettle Rendered Lard.—Kettle rendered lard is the purest and

best lard made in packing houses and consists of leaf lard and back
fat, the proportions varying according to the value of the raw
product, usually on a basis of about 60 per cent back fat and 40 per
cent leaf. While kettle rendered lard is sold under the label of “pure
leaf lard” there is little leaf used, as this part is worth more as a
neutral lard than when made into kettle rendered. A very acceptable
formula for kettle rendered lard, if handled properly, is as follows:
70 per cent back fat;
15 per cent leaf scraped lard, which is pieces of leaf, scraped out of the hog after
the leaf lard has been pulled, and thoroughly chilled;
15 per cent lard stearine.

Where neutral lard and kettle rendered lard are made together a
nice flavor may be imparted to the kettle rendered lard by using the
bottoms of neutral lard when cooking it, as the scrap from the
neutral when brought to the high temperature of kettle rendered
lard imparts a rich flavor.
Process for Kettle Rendered Lard.—The raw product is put through
a hasher which cuts the fat tissues, so that when the heat is applied
the oil readily separates. The kettle generally used for this purpose is
about five feet in diameter and from five to seven feet deep, made
of wrought iron, jacketed for steam, with an agitator to keep the
product agitated while cooking. The jacket should be kept heated
until through hashing, then increased until the temperature of the
lard reaches 255° to 260° F., when the pressure should be shut off
for one and one-half hours at least—one and one-half hours should
be taken to reach this period. If lard stearine is used it should be
added at this time, using about 15 per cent for the summer formula.
After this period of shut-off, again turn on the steam, holding
temperature, allowing the contents to cook until dry, or until no
further steam arises, which will consume probably from thirty to
forty-five minutes. Stop agitating and add twenty pounds of salt, let
stand to settle one hour, then lower into the kettle below, strain
through a cloth sieve, the lard being taken off the scrap with a
siphon. The scrap will remain in the bottom of the cooking kettle; if
handled carefully, very little will pass through the pipe. The lard,
when being drawn into the kettle below, should be passed through
several thicknesses of cheese cloth in order to catch any small pieces
of scrap or tissue.
Settling.—After the lard is lowered into the settling kettle, allow it
to stand two to three hours, then siphon to a third kettle, as
considerable scrap will have gone through into the lard from the
cooking kettle, strain it through a double thickness of cheese cloth
stretched over a frame. In the third kettle a scum will arise on it,
which should be immediately skimmed off, and about ten pounds of
fine salt added to a 5,000-pound batch, to aid in settling. If
convenient, it is advisable to allow the lard to settle in this kettle for
twelve hours before drawing it off, although this length of time is not
necessary, but a perfect settlement of the impurities is necessary to
make the best lard.
Scrap.—After the lard is drawn from the cooking kettle, the scrap
should be drawn from the bottom. This scrap is used in the prime
steam lard tank. If, however, there is no other provision for handling
the scrap, it should be put into a hoop press (Fig. 150), and pressure
applied, thereby liberating all the oil left in the residue, the scrap
then being used as “pressed scrap.”
Packing and Cooling.—Kettle rendered lard is usually sold and
used more extensively during the cooler weather. It is very desirable
that there should be a light, fluffy top. This is only possible when the
lard is drawn hot in a cool room; chilling the lard rapidly causes this
appearance at the top, which is always looked upon by the trade as
a mark of excellence. When the lard is drawn off into small packages
they are placed one on top of the other, covering the top with paper.
The cover should not be put on the package until it is chilled,
otherwise the fluffy appearance is lost.
 FIG. 150.—HOOP PRESS.

Drawing Temperatures.—When drawn into wooden packages, such

as ten, twenty or fifty pound pails, lard should be drawn at 150° F. If
drawn into tins it should be drawn off at 175° to 180° F.; when
drawn into tierces, barrels or half barrels it should be drawn at about
130° F. When drawing lard into wooden packages they should be
silicated the day before, giving them ample time to dry, as this
prevents the packages from soaking up the lard and also prevents
excessive shrinkage of the package.
Refining Prime Steam Lard.—Refined prime steam lard is made
into two products, pure refined lard and lard with beef fat added.
Pure Refined Lard.—Pure refined lard consists of prime steam
lard with lard stearine added. This is a product resulting when prime
steam lard is pressed to obtain lard oil, a process described later;
however, the quantity available is quite limited. Descriptions will be
confined to the making of lard with beef fat added.
 FIG. 151.—SECTION THROUGH TANK FOR MIXING FULLERS EARTH AND LARD.

Fullers Earth.—About thirty years ago the method of refining

lard with fullers earth was first inaugurated, and for years only
imported earth from England was thought suitable for this purpose.
Deposits of fullers earth, of fair quality, have been discovered in the
United States and American fullers earth is today used in some lard
refineries. Indications are that with improvements in mining and
methods of grinding, and possibly also in the discovery of better
beds or layers of this substance, manufacturers will not continue to
go abroad for supplies of fullers earth.
An explanation of how fullers earth bleaches lard and its kindred
fats would be interesting, if anyone knew the exact explanation, but
so far there has been no scientific reason given that accounts for
this property of this material, therefore no chemical test can be
applied to different samples of fullers earth to determine whether
they are suitable for refining or not. The only safe test is the
practical one of heating a sample together with lard and watching
the result of the bleach.
Fullers earth is used for bleaching cotton seed oil and other
greases and fats which are subjected to the bleaching process. In
improving the color of lard it is done at the expense of flavor, and a
wholesome odor, which is natural to the lard, is sacrificed in a
greater or lesser degree to the advantage of color. The tendency is
to make lard white, even though it loses in odor and taste. In
compounding lard this is intensified by the general use of tallow.
 FIG. 152.—FULLERS EARTH KETTLE FOR SMALL HOUSES.

Bleaching Kettle.—This can be of a predominant size dependent

upon the volume of business. For a moderate business the most
suitable dimensions are about six feet in diameter and four feet
deep. A sectional view of such a kettle is shown in Fig. 151 and a
smaller kettle is illustrated in Fig. 152. It was the practice to use
compressed air for agitation so as to mix the fullers earth with the
lard. This has been discontinued in the best refineries, as it was
found that agitation with air had a tendency to make the lard turn
rancid more readily than if agitated by mechanical device.
The kettle is supplied with a vertical shaft, to the bottom of which
is attached a propellor about fourteen inches in diameter. Around
this is fitted a wire screen about thirty inches high made of
galvanized wire, ³⁄₁₆-inch mesh, this screen clearing the blades of
the fan about an inch. On top of this screen is fixed an iron pipe
approaching to within about eighteen inches of the surface of the
lard when the kettle is filled. A kettle of this size will hold about
5,000 pounds of lard for treatment. The agitating blade should
revolve at a speed of from 125 to 175 revolutions per minute. This
has the effect of producing a miniature whirlpool in the body of lard
by driving the lard through the screen against the sides of the kettle,
where it rises to the surface and goes down through the funnel-
shaped tube to be again driven through the screen. In this way the
fullers earth is thoroughly mixed in and if there is a tendency to
“lump” the lumps are readily broken up by impact.
Bleaching Lard.—If cold lard is used it should be melted and any
sediment or moisture which settles should be drawn off. It is best
not to draw off too close to the bottom so as to avoid any moisture.
The temperature at which lard should be bleached is an important
matter to be determined. If the lard has been heavily cooked and
has a strong steam flavor, a temperature of 180° F. is correct. If the
lard has not been well cooked a somewhat lower temperature is
necessary. As a rule the lower the temperature at which bleaching is
done, the more fullers earth is required to get the proper bleach and
at the same time as little earth flavor as possible is a point for
careful and intelligent consideration. The best way to determine,
where there are large quantities of lard, is to take a small sample
and make tests in the laboratory. The point to be obtained is to get
the bleach with as little of the flavor of the earth as possible.
Generally speaking, from three-fourths to one and one-half per cent
of fullers earth will get the desired result.
 When the lard is brought to the proper temperature, fullers earth
is put in the kettle, when it is agitated from eight to twelve minutes,
then pumped through the filter press as rapidly as possible. It takes
a certain length of time for fullers earth to do its work properly, and
a strong agitation of from eight to twelve minutes appears to be the
best method to adopt in order to obtain the full effect of the earth.
Refining Tallow Separately.—Where tallow is used in lard, it is
always advisable to bleach the tallow separately. This is done in the
same manner as described for lard, with the exception that about
three per cent of fullers earth is used, after which it is pumped
through the filter press and into the receiving tanks.

FIG. 153.—FILTER PRESS.

When it is compounded with the lard, the desired amount should

be put into the kettle with the lard after it is treated. The same is
true of oleo-stearine, except that in the bleaching of this article from
one-half to one and one-half per cent of fuller earth is sufficient.
Measures must be taken to see that ingredients are intimately mixed
before passing the product to the rolls.
The use of tallow or stearine is for the purpose of cheapening the
product, as well as hardening it, the formula for same being made
according to the values and conditions under which the lard is to be
sold. For instance lard going south, or into a warm climate, is made
much harder than lard for a temperate climate; hence lard formulas,
generally speaking, are worthless for general use, the different
formulas being made to suit widely different conditions, and their
availability also depends to a considerable extent upon the
fluctuation of values.
Filter Press.—After the contents of the kettle have been pumped
through the filter air pressure should be turned into the filter press
in order to blow out all the lard possible. After this live steam should
be turned on, expelling the balance of the lard from the pipe. A large
portion of this latter lard, however, is unfit to be used again, as it
contains sediment and fullers earth combined, having a rank, strong
odor, and can be used only for grease.

FIG. 154.—LARD COOLING CYLINDER.

Lard Roll.—This is a device provided for cooling lard in a film so

as to bring plenty of air in contact with the surface during the
congealing. After the lard has been put through the filtering press it
goes to a receiving tank and is next passed over rollers for chilling.
(Fig. 154.) These are cast iron cylinders containing refrigerated
brine. The cylinders revolve at from ten to fourteen revolutions per
minute, the lard being congealed on the outer surface. Fixed against
the side of the cylinder is the edge of a steel knife which scrapes
close to its surface. The lard, in contact with the cool surface of the
cylinders, congeals and as it passes to the knife it is removed and
drops into the trough. Here it is thoroughly beaten by a revolving
shaft with pickers on it, so that all lumps are broken and the grain is
of a smooth, even consistency. Pure lard passes to an agitator, which
is a jacketed kettle, where it is given a thorough agitation and drawn
off cool as possible, the object being to have the different
ingredients thoroughly mixed at a low temperature.
At times rolls are used in tandem. When a bountiful supply of cold
water, say at 60° F., is available, the saving in refrigeration justifies
the use of tandem rolls. In this instance the first roll is elevated so
as to gravitate the lard to the feed of the second.

WEIGHT OF LARD PACKAGES.

Weight Avg.
Weight packages material weight
3-POUND PAILS:
100 pails 43 lbs., 7 oz. 6.95 oz.
100 bails 5 lbs., 4 oz. .84 oz.
100 covers 9 lbs., 7 oz. 1.51 oz.
100 summer covers 6 lbs., 3 oz. .99 oz.
Average weight each ... 10.29 oz.
5-POUND PAILS:
100 pails 58 lbs., 12 oz. 9.40 oz.
100 bails 5 lbs., 15 oz. .95 oz.
100 covers 13 lbs. 2.08 oz.
100 summer covers 8 lbs., 10 oz. 1.38 oz.
Average weight each ... 13.81 oz.
10-POUND PAILS:
100 pails 92 lbs., 14 oz. 14.86 oz.
100 bails 7 lbs., 12 oz. 1.24 oz.
100 covers 19 lbs., 5 oz. 3.09 oz.
100 summer covers 13 lbs., 10 oz. 2.18 oz.
Average weight each ... 21.37 oz.
20-POUND PAILS:
 100 pails 144 lbs., 15 oz. 23.19 oz.
100 bails 10 lbs., 9 oz. 1.69 oz.
100 covers 34 lbs. 5.44 oz.
100 summer covers 22 lbs., 4 oz. 3.56 oz.
Average weight each ... 33.88 oz.
40-POUND SQUARE CANS:
100 cans 268 lbs., 8 oz. 42.96 oz.
100 caps 2 lbs., 8 oz. .40 oz.
Average weight each ... 43.36 oz.
50-POUND ROUND CANS:
100 cans 270 lbs., 10 oz. 43.30 oz.
100 covers 50 lbs., 2 oz. 8.02 oz.
100 summer covers 38 lbs., 12 oz. 6.20 oz.
Average weight each ... 57.52 oz.

Lard Packing.—Refined lard is not usually drawn in a cooler. In

most climates the non-refrigerated rooms will suffice. It is packed in
tubs, barrels or tierces of wood. The lard, when available, in the
picker trough, is usually chilled and stiff. The use of a pump is made
to withdraw and force it through a strainer in an enlarged section of
the pipe, so as to effectually break all lumps. A relief valve should be
placed on the line to spill into the picker in case the draw cocks are
all suddenly closed.
Lard Packages.—In wooden packages tare is deducted. The
table on preceding page shows the actual weight of the different
packages which are usually made from an X L grade of tin.
Inasmuch as lard sells at more per pound than the tin costs, there is
always an endeavor to get the packages as heavy as consistent.
Country Style Lard.—Many moderate sized plants that do not
cater to a trade accustomed to highly refined lard, prefer to make
kettle rendered lard as most of their output, using leaf, back fat and
trimmings, adding the complimentary proportion of killing lard and
agitating the whole in a water jacketed agitator. All implements used
are similar to those described previously, also the method of drawing
from the agitator to packages is the same. Beef fat can be rendered
in the same way when oleo departments are not operated, and it
can thus be used to good advantage.
Compound—What it is.—Compound is a substitute for lard and
is made of cotton seed oil and oleo stearine, or tallow, or both. The
formula on this article varies according to the relative values of the
ingredients. The generally accepted formula is 80 per cent cotton
seed oil, and 20 per cent oleo stearine.
If the market price of oleo stearine is high, a formula may be
substituted as follows: 75 per cent cotton seed oil, 7¹⁄₂ percent
tallow, 17¹⁄₂ per cent oleo stearine. In cold weather even a smaller
amount of stearine may be used and a proportionately larger
amount of tallow.
Cottonseed Oil.—This is a product derived from cotton seed.
Before the manufacture of cotton seed oil, the cotton seed, removed
from the cotton, was thrown in large compost heaps and after
decomposition, was used sparingly as a fertilizer. An idea of its value
may be gained from the following table. From one ton of seed, by
average, is obtained:

270 pounds or 36 gallons of oil at 28c per gallon $10.08

750 pounds cotton seed meal at 90c per 100 pounds 6.75
850 pounds hulls at 15c per 100 pounds 1.27
30 pounds lint at 3¹⁄₂c 1.05
Total value $19.15
100 pounds waste and dirt.

The oil when extracted from the seed is termed “crude oil.” In
refining this oil the loss varies from 7 per cent to 12 per cent, on an
average about 9¹⁄₄ per cent.
Refining Crude Oil.—The crude oil is purchased by refiners and
treated to produce “yellow oil.” In this process it is put into a tank (it
is generally considered profitable to refine cotton seed oil only in
large quantities) supplied with a revolving agitator. Into the tank is
put a solution of eighteen to twenty per cent caustic soda. The
quantity and strength of the solution necessary is determined by
treating a small sample. To a small sample of oil add the soda
solution, stirring continuously, having it heated to a temperature of
160° to 180° F. When sufficient soda lye has been added a floculent
precipitation will be noticed. This indicates a “breaking” of the oil. By
calculation of the relative amount the comparative quantities can be
arrived at.
An excessive amount of lye will saponify its equivalent in good oil,
therefore care must be exercised to see that only the proper amount
is used. In a practical way the soda is introduced in the crude oil
solution and agitation is started to insure the thorough mixing of the
caustic soda and the oil. The floculent substance appearing, the
agitation is stopped and the oil allowed to settle, the sediment and
substance other than oil collecting at the bottom of the tank. A small
quantity (about one-quarter of one per cent by weight) of fullers
earth is added and the oil removed by pumping through a filter press
producing what is known to the trade as “yellow oil.”
The sediment, known as “foots” is collected in kettles and treated
with additional lye, boiled and settled with salt; water added, settled
and drawn. This treatment is duplicated as many times as necessary,
until the soap stock will separate from impurities. When thoroughly
settled draw the soap stock into packages for the soap trade. The
finished “foots” contains about 33 to 40 per cent of moisture and a
small percentage of lye.
Deodorizing Cotton Seed Oil.—The “yellow oil” of trade has a
decided flavor which it is desirable to remove, and this process is
accomplished by deodorizing. (See Fig. 155.)
Treating Tank.—This tank is equipped for heating the oil to a very
high temperature by the introduction of a large coil surface,
preferably rings, one within the other and arranged so that each ring
is accessible. The kettle coils, etc., should be made extra heavy. The
top of the kettle must also be hooded and as the oil boils violently
the steam must be given free opportunity to escape. The escape
pipe should be at least sixteen to twenty inches in diameter in a tank
six feet in diameter, and should be provided with a goose neck, so