Created by Turbolearn AI

Introduction to Programming Study

Guide
What is Programming?
Programming is the process of creating instructions for a computer to
perform specific tasks. Think of it like giving instructions to a very literal
and not-so-bright friend to build a Lego set—you need to be extremely
precise!

The computer only understands machine code (binary: 1s and 0s).

Programming languages act as translators between human-readable code and
machine code.

Programming Languages
Programming languages are tools that allow programmers to write
instructions for computers in a way that's easier for humans to
understand. They act as an interpreter, translating human language into
machine code.

General-purpose languages: Python, Java (can do many things).

Specific-purpose languages: Robot C (for robots), HTML/CSS (for websites).
Low-level languages (closer to machine code): Assembly, C.
High-level languages (further from machine code): Java, Python.
Language
Examples Description
Type

General-
Python, Java Can perform a wide variety of computational tasks.
purpose
Specific- Robot C, Designed for specific purposes (e.g., robotics, web
purpose HTML/CSS development).
Closer to machine code; more difficult for humans
Low-level Assembly, C
to read and write.
Further from machine code; easier for humans to
High-level Java, Python
read and write.

Writing Code

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You can't just type words into a text document and expect the computer to
understand. You need an IDE (Integrated Development Environment).

An IDE is a program that provides a user-friendly interface for writing, running,

and debugging code.
IDEs translate your code into machine code and run it on the computer.
IDEs also provide helpful tools like built-in error checking.

Think of an IDE like any other program on your computer (a game,

browser, etc.), but specifically for writing code.

IDEs ‍
IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) significantly simplify the coding
process. Historically, code was written on punch cards, a slow and cumbersome
method. IDEs provide a streamlined approach, making programming much easier.
The image displays a Java IDE example, showing the code editor and the console for
output. IDEs are essential tools, used in almost all programming projects. They allow
for smooth code writing and compilation, eliminating compatibility concerns.

Programming Language Syntax

Just like learning a human language, learning a programming language involves
understanding its syntax. Each language has its own rules, similar to grammar. These
rules govern how code is written, including function formatting, line endings, and
function setup.

Syntax refers to the set of rules that govern the structure of a

programming language. It dictates how code elements should be
arranged to create valid and executable programs.

Different languages have unique syntaxes. While some share similarities, each
language possesses unique quirks. Ignoring syntax rules leads to errors, similar to
misinterpreting a sentence due to grammatical errors.

For example, initializing a variable (a concept not yet covered, but relevant to the
example):

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Code
Language Explanation
Example

Specifies variable type (int), name (x), assignment (=), and

Java int x = 3;
semicolon.
Python x = 3 No explicit type declaration; concise syntax.
Specifies variable type (let), name (x), assignment (=), and
JavaScript let x = 3;
semicolon.

The comma example: "Let's eat, Grandma" versus "Let's eat Grandma". A small
mistake with significant impact on meaning applies similarly in programming. A
missing semicolon or misplaced character can prevent code execution.

Learning a language's syntax is crucial before writing complex programs.

While initially tedious, mastering syntax allows for easy error
identification and efficient coding.

The Console
After writing and running code, you'll need to see the results. Programmers use the
console, a text interface, for various purposes. As previously shown, the console is a
key component of an IDE.

Its primary function is to display program output using print statements. These
commands print text to the console.

A print statement is a fundamental command in programming that

displays text output on the console. It's a simple yet crucial tool for
viewing program results and debugging.

A basic example in Python: print("Hello, world!") displays "Hello, world!" on the

console.

Print statements are vital for observing program output. For example, calculating 4 +
3: Instead of just performing the calculation, use a print statement to display the
result (7) on the console.

The print statement's implementation varies across languages. Java, for example,
offers variations with/without line breaks and optimized versions. While the core
function remains, syntax and nuances differ between languages.

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Basic Computer Operations

The Console and Print Statements

The console and its associated print statement are crucial developer tools. They
provide information about a program's performance during development. However,
they are not intended for the end-user and should not be included in the final
product. Think of it like the inner workings of a phone – you don't see the console in
apps you use.

Basic Arithmetic and the Modulus Operator

Computers understand basic arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. These operations are fundamental to building programs, even seemingly
simple ones like a calculator app.

Beyond these, the modulus operator (%) provides the remainder of a division. For
example:

10 mod 3 = 1

The modulus operator returns the remainder after division. It's useful for
determining if a number is even or odd (even numbers have a remainder of
0 when divided by 2).

String Manipulation and Concatenation

Strings are text. We can manipulate them using concatenation, the process of joining
strings and numbers together using the + operator within a print statement.

For example, to print "Game Over 4 was your final score", you can concatenate:

print("Game Over " + 4 + " was your final score")

Remember to include spaces within your strings to ensure proper

formatting and readability, and to avoid accidentally concatenating strings
and integers directly.

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The difference between "4" (a string) and 4 (an integer) is crucial. Using a
string where a number is expected will cause errors.

What are Variables?

A variable is something that stores information and can be referenced and
manipulated. Think of variables like cardboard boxes: they store items that can be
changed, replaced, and modified. Each variable has a type, a name, and a piece of
information stored inside.

Variables are containers for information that a programmer can use and
reuse throughout their program. They are fundamental to programming.

Types of Primitive Variables

There are many variable types, but we'll focus on primitive types:

Integers (int): Whole numbers ranging from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648.

They cannot hold decimal values.
Booleans (bool): Can only store true or false. Useful for conditional
statements.
Floats: Floating-point numbers (numbers with decimal places). Precision up to
32 bits.
Doubles: Floating-point numbers with higher precision than floats (up to 64
bits).
Strings (string): Sequences of characters (words and sentences). Useful for text
display and input. Strings can be concatenated (combined).
Characters (char): Hold a single character. Useful for single button presses or
characters in a string.

Defining and Using Variables

When a variable is defined, the computer creates space in memory to store its name
and contents.

Think of it like having a storage facility. Each variable is a box with a label
(the name) and contents (the stored information).

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You can create a variable without immediately assigning it a value, leaving the space
in memory for later use. However, trying to use a variable without assigning a value
will result in a NullPointerException.

You can also make a variable point to the contents of another existing variable. This
saves space because it doesn't create a new memory location. Instead, it creates
another label pointing to the same memory location.

Why are Variables Useful?

Storing information (user names, scores) for later reference, modification, or
addition.
Storing user input, which cannot be pre-programmed.
Storing values that change as the program runs.
Manipulating values (multiplication, string concatenation).

Variables are essential for clean, efficient code. Understanding variable types and
how to use them is crucial for programming.

Variable Updates
Things that we know are going to have the same value are called variables.
Variables can be updated throughout your code.

For example:

Let's say you had an age variable with the integer value 17.
After celebrating a birthday, you want to update your age to 18.
You would reference the variable and set it equal to the new integer value (18).

This is like having a box labeled "age" with a piece of paper reading "17" inside. You
take out the paper, erase "17", replace it with "18", and put it back in the box. This
allows easy updating of variable contents as things change dynamically.

Another example: In an RPG, your character might have stats like attack, defense, and
mana. As the game progresses, you continuously update these variables to make the
player more powerful. You don't create new variables; you update the existing ones.

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Variables are simply locations in memory storing a value. Updating them

involves changing the stored value. The memory location remains
constant until the program ends. Each time you run the code, new
memory is allocated for the variables.

Variable Arithmetic
You can add, subtract, divide, multiply, and use the modulus operator on integer,
float, and double variables.

Example: In a calculator app, if you store the first number entered as num1 and the
second as num2, you can multiply num1 and num2 and store the result in a new variable
called result. Each time the program runs, the user can input new numbers, which
will be assigned to num1 and num2, and a new result will be calculated.

This approach keeps track of the numbers and the operations, which is
useful.

You can't subtract, multiply, divide, or use the modulus operator on strings, but you
can add them. For example:

str1 contains "hello"

str2 contains " there"
str1 + str2 results in "hello there"

Variable Naming Conventions

Variables must be one continuous string. To create a variable for a player's score (e.g.,
"player score"), you must combine the words.

Programmers use different naming conventions. We'll use camel case in this lecture:

The first word is not capitalized.

Each subsequent word is capitalized.

Example: playerScore

Camel case improves readability, especially with long variable names

(e.g., playerScoreBeforeFinalBoss). Other conventions include underscores
(e.g., player_score).

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Conditional Statements
Conditional statements change the code's path based on conditions. We'll use red
lines to denote paths not taken and green lines for paths followed.

The main type is the if statement:

if (condition) {
// Code to execute if the condition is true
} else {
// Code to execute if the condition is false
}

The condition is evaluated as a boolean (true or false). If true, the code inside the
curly braces runs; otherwise, it's skipped.

Note: While curly braces ({}) are used in many languages, some (like
Python) use colons and whitespace.

The if statement can include else if and else statements:

else if: Evaluated only if the preceding if or else if condition is false.

else: Executed if all preceding conditions are false.

Example:

if (age == 10) {
// Code to run if age is 10
} else if (age == 12) {
// Code to run if age is 12
} else {
// Code to run if age is neither 10 nor 12
}

If age is 10, only the first code block runs. If age is 12, only the second code block
runs. If age is neither 10 nor 12, only the third code block runs.

Conditional Statements
Conditional statements allow your program to execute different instructions based on
whether a condition is true or false.

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If Statement
The basic structure of an if statement is:

if (condition) {
// Code to execute if the condition is true
}

If the condition evaluates to true, the code inside the curly brackets {} is
executed. Otherwise, it's skipped.

Else If Statement
else if statements are used to check additional conditions if the preceding if
or else if statements are false.

if (condition1) {
// Code if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// Code if condition1 is false and condition2 is true
}

Else Statement
An else statement provides a block of code to execute if none of the preceding
if or else if conditions are true. It's a catch-all for cases not covered by the
other conditions.

if (condition1) {
// Code if condition1 is true
} else {
// Code if condition1 is false
}

It's good practice to include an else statement to handle unexpected

or unanticipated conditions.

Switch Statement

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A switch statement provides a more structured alternative to many nested if-

else if statements, particularly when checking a single variable against
multiple values. It uses cases and a default case to catch any values not
explicitly covered.

Switch statements use a colon (:) to signify the start of a case and a
break statement to end it, unlike if-else statements that use curly
brackets {}.

Arrays
Arrays are used to store collections of data of the same type.

Think of arrays as a single column in a spreadsheet. Each entry has its

place within the array.

Array Indexing
Arrays are zero-indexed. This means that the first element in an array is at
index 0, the second element is at index 1, and so on.

The index is the numerical position of an element within the array. It is

always zero-based in most programming languages.

Attempting to access an element outside of the array's bounds (e.g., trying to

access the 10th element of a 10-element array using index 10) results in an
"array out of bounds error".

Arrays

Array Initialization and Size

When initializing an array, you have two options:

1. Populate it with elements immediately upon creation.

2. Define the array's size and populate it later.

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Important Note: Array sizes are fixed upon initialization. You cannot
increase the size of an array after it's created. Think of it like a bookshelf—
once you've arranged books, adding more requires rearranging everything.
You can create a new, larger array and copy the contents, but the original
array’s size remains unchanged.

You must specify the data type (e.g., string, integer) of an array when you
declare it. You cannot mix data types within a single array.

Multi-Dimensional Arrays
Arrays can be nested to create multi-dimensional arrays. A 2D array (array of arrays)
is like a matrix or a Google Sheet.

Each element is itself an array.

Indexing uses two numbers: [row][column]

Example:

A 2D array myArray could look like this:

[
["Clint", "Bob", "Alice"],
["Chris", "Sarah", "Mallory"]
]

myArray[0][2] would access "Alice" (first row, third column).

myArray[1][1] would access "Sarah" (second row, second column).

3D arrays (arrays of arrays of arrays) are also possible but are beyond the
scope of this lecture.

Loops
A loop repeatedly executes a block of code. This is far more efficient than copying
and pasting the same code multiple times.

For Loops

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A for loop iterates a specific number of times. The syntax varies by programming
language, but generally includes:

1. An integer variable (e.g., i).

2. A condition that determines when the loop terminates (e.g., i < 10).
3. An operation that modifies the integer variable each iteration (e.g., i++).

Example:

for (let i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

console.log("Hello, world!");
}

This loop will print "Hello, world!" three times.

Important Note: Always ensure your loop's condition will eventually

become false to avoid an infinite loop, which crashes the program. For
example, a loop that starts at 10, checks if it's less than 0, and adds 1
each time will run forever.

Lecture Notes: Loops and Errors in

Programming
Loops

For Loop
A for loop iterates through elements in an array or list. It executes a set of
instructions for each element. This is useful for reading elements and performing
operations on them.

For example: A for loop can iterate through an array and print the value of each
location.

For Each Loop

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Similar to a for loop, a for each loop (or "for in" loop in Python) iterates through each
element in an array or list, carrying out a set of instructions for each value.

While Loop
A while loop continuously executes instructions as long as a given conditional
statement is true. This condition can be based on variable values, numerical
comparisons, or equality checks. Unlike for loops, the loop isn't contained within one
statement; it extends and runs until the condition becomes false. While loops can run
infinitely if the condition never evaluates to false.

Example: A while loop can be used in game programming to refresh the

screen continually, allowing for interactive gameplay. An infinite while
loop can be created using the syntax while True.

Do While Loop
A do while loop is similar to a while loop, but it executes its instructions at least
once, even if the condition is initially false. After the first execution, it behaves like a
standard while loop.

Example: The condition within the loop runs once, then continues to run if
the condition is still met.

Errors in Programming
Program errors, often called bugs, fall into three categories:

Syntax Errors
Syntax errors occur when programming rules (syntax) are broken, making
the code uninterpretable by the computer. Examples include: missing
semicolons, incorrectly defined variables, or misspelled keywords.

Easy to fix: IDEs usually highlight syntax errors and suggest fixes. They prevent
code execution until corrected.
Similar to grammatical errors in writing.

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Runtime Errors
Runtime errors appear when the code runs but encounters a statement
the computer cannot compute in a reasonable timeframe.

Most common: Infinite loops. Like telling your friend to wait until Michael Scott
makes a specific joke on Friends. The condition for loop termination is never
met.
Avoidance: Carefully plan code flow, especially loops, to ensure all statements
are completable by the computer.

Logic Errors
Logic errors occur when the code runs without syntax or runtime errors,
but produces an unexpected result. The code functions, but doesn't
perform the intended task.

Example: A calculator app meant to add numbers instead multiplies them.

Debugging: Difficult to identify and resolve. Test code incrementally to pinpoint
and fix these errors.

Debugging Your Code

Debugging is the process of identifying and removing errors from your program.
There are three main types of errors: syntax errors, runtime errors, and logic errors.

Syntax Errors
Syntax errors occur when you violate the rules of the programming
language's grammar. These are usually caught by the compiler or
interpreter before the program runs.

The IDE will often point to the line number where the error occurred.
Read the error message carefully and try to understand the problem.
If you don't understand the error message, search for it online (e.g., on Stack
Overflow).

Runtime Errors

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Runtime errors occur while the program is running. These errors often
cause the program to crash.

Similar to syntax errors, the IDE might provide information about the line where
the error occurred.
Consult online resources to find solutions.

Logic Errors
Logic errors are harder to find. They occur when the program runs without
crashing, but produces incorrect results. The program does what you told
it to do, but that wasn't what you wanted it to do.

These errors do not typically result in error messages from the compiler or
interpreter.
You will need to use debugging techniques to find and fix these errors.

Strategies for Debugging Logic Errors

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Print Statements: Use print() statements to display the values of variables at

various points in your code. This helps you trace the flow of execution and
identify where the program is going wrong. Remember to remove these
statements after debugging.

Breakpoints: A breakpoint pauses your program's execution at a specific line.

This lets you inspect the values of variables and the program's state at that
point. You can use multiple breakpoints to step through your code. Your IDE
likely has a visual debugger which allows for this functionality.

Commenting Out Code: Commenting out sections of code temporarily disables

them without deleting them. If a problem disappears after commenting out a
section, that section is likely the source of the error.

Language Comment Syntax

Python # This is a comment

// This is a comment
C++
/* Multiline comment */
// This is a comment
Java
/* Multiline comment */
// This is a comment
JavaScript
/* Multiline comment */

Preventing Errors
Frequent Backups: Regularly save your code to prevent data loss in case of
catastrophic errors. Version control systems (like Git) are highly recommended
for this task.

Frequent Testing: Run your program often to catch errors early. If you test
frequently, it's much easier to locate the source of an error because fewer lines
of code have been added since the last successful test.

Functions in Programming
What is a Function?

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A function is a reusable block of code that performs a specific task. It's like wrapping
a gift—you put code inside, give it a name, and then "unwrap" it (call it) whenever
you need that code to run.

Functions are essential for organizing and reusing code. They improve
readability and reduce redundancy.

Functions and the print() Statement

The print() function is a common example. It takes an argument (what you want to
print) and displays it on the console. Behind the scenes, there's more complex code
handling the actual display, but the print() function abstracts that away for
simplicity.

Why Use Functions?

Reduce Code Duplication: Avoid writing the same code multiple times.
Improved Readability: Organize code into logical blocks, making it easier to
understand.
Modularity: Break down complex tasks into smaller, manageable functions.
Reusability: Use the same function many times in different parts of your
program.

Function Arguments
Arguments are values passed into a function. They act as inputs, allowing the
function to perform different operations based on the provided arguments.

Think of ordering food at a restaurant: the "get food" function requires an

argument (your order) to know what to prepare. Different arguments
result in different outputs.

Arguments can be various data types (integers, strings, arrays, etc.).

The max() function is an example: it takes two integers as arguments and
returns the larger one.

Functions with and without Arguments

Functions can be categorized based on whether they accept arguments:

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Feature Description Example

Takes input values that affect its

With Arguments max(5, 10)
behavior.
Without Performs a fixed task without requiring print_stats() (prints
Arguments external input. player stats)

Functions with and without Return Values

Functions can also be categorized by whether they return a value:

Feature Description Example

With Return Produces a result that can be stored or

max(5, 10) (returns 10)
Value used in other parts of the program.
Performs an action but doesn't
Without print_stats() (prints stats;
explicitly return a value (often implicitly
Return Value doesn't return a specific value)
returns None).

Note: Functions that return values require you to store or use that
returned value explicitly; otherwise, the returned value is lost. A function
with no return value still executes its code, but doesn’t send anything
back to the calling point.

Combining Features
You can combine these features: a function might accept arguments and return a
value, or it might accept no arguments but still return a value. The possibilities are
versatile, allowing for robust and flexible code.

Lecture Notes: Functions in

Programming
Function Types
There are four main types of functions:

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1. Functions that take arguments and return a value: These functions accept
input and produce output. For example, a function that adds two numbers
would take two numbers as arguments and return their sum.

2. Functions that take arguments but do not return a value (void functions):
These functions perform actions but don't produce a value that can be assigned
to a variable. print() statements often fall under this category. They are useful
for condensing multiple print statements.

3. Functions that do not take arguments but return a value: These functions
perform calculations or actions based on internal data and return a result.

4. Functions that take no arguments and return no value: These are the simplest
type of function. They perform a specific task without needing input or
producing output.

The Power of Functions

Functions offer a significant advantage: they simplify making large-scale code
changes. Each function call is essentially a copy of the original function's code.
Modifying the original function automatically updates all function calls.

Example: Imagine a print_stats() function displaying a player's statistics in a game.

To add a new statistic (e.g., experience points), you only need to modify the
print_stats() function itself. All previous calls to print_stats() will automatically
include the new statistic.

Importing Functions
Importing functions allows you to use pre-written code. This is analogous to buying
materials from a home improvement store instead of making everything from scratch.

Libraries: Collections of functions with a common theme (e.g., math library,

data analysis library).
Packages: Smaller subsets of functions within a library.
Classes: Highly specialized sets of functions and methods within a package.

Import Statement: Most languages use an import statement with three parts:

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1. The library.
2. The package within the library.
3. The specific class from the package.

You can also use * to import all classes from a package, but it's generally more
efficient to import only the necessary classes.

Example (Java): import java.util.Scanner; imports the Scanner class from the util
package within the java library.

Example (Python): from math import factorial imports only the factorial function
from the math library. Importing specific functions is generally more efficient for larger
programs. If you need additional functions later, you can import them as needed.

Creating Your Own Functions

When pre-built functions aren't sufficient, you'll need to create your own. This is
straightforward, following basic rules.

The basic structure of a function involves specifying what arguments it

accepts (if any), the type of value it returns (if any), and the code block it
executes.

There are four types of functions to create:

Functions that take no arguments and return no values

Functions that take arguments and return a value
Functions that take arguments and don't return a value
Functions that don't take arguments but still return values

The lecture notes will continue to cover how to implement these function types in
more detail.

Function Naming Conventions

Variable naming conventions apply to function names.
Avoid two-word function names and special characters (periods, commas).
Use camel case: capitalize each word except the first.

Defining Functions in Java vs. Python

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Feature Java Python

Defined (e.g., public). Not crucial for

Function Scope Not explicitly defined.
beginners.
Specified before function name (e.g.,
Implicit; inferred from the
Return Type void for no return value, int for integer
return statement.
return).
Preceded by def (short for
Function Name Follows after return type and scope.
define).
Function Body Enclosed in curly braces {}. Defined by indentation.
Example (no public void myFunction() { // def my_function():\n #
arguments) function body } function body

A void function is a function that does not return any value. A void
function is similar to the print_stats function discussed earlier.

Void Functions with Arguments

Arguments are passed within parentheses ().
Specify argument type and name (e.g., int num1, int num2).
Example (Java):

public void multiplyNumbers(int num1, int num2) {

System.out.println(num1 * num2);
}

Arguments must match the defined types. You cannot pass a string when an
integer is expected.

When calling multiplyNumbers(5, 8), 5 becomes num1 and 8 becomes

num2.

Functions Returning Values

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Specify return type (e.g., int, String, etc.) before the function name in Java.
Python infers this from the return statement.
Every code path must have a return statement. Failing to do so causes an
error.
The returned variable type must match the function's defined return type.
A useful technique is to have a unique return statement at the end as a
placeholder in case something is wrong in your function. It will help you catch a
bug.

Ensure all possible scenarios within your function have a corresponding

return statement. This is especially important with complex functions,
such as those containing switch statements with many cases.

Functions Returning Values and Taking

Arguments
Combine argument definition (within parentheses) and return type specification.
Example: A function that takes two integers and returns their sum.
Java: public int addNumbers(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
Python: def add_numbers(a, b):\n return a + b

Lecture Notes: Data Structures and

Searching Algorithms
Arrays
Arrays are lists of values stored together.

When you create an array, you specify its size, which is fixed. You cannot
increase the size later.
To access elements, you use an index, starting from 0. The first item is at index
0, the second at index 1, and so on.
Accessing an index outside the array's bounds causes an error.
Multi-dimensional arrays are arrays of arrays (e.g., an array containing arrays,
which themselves contain arrays). These are useful for organizing large
amounts of related data.

Array Lists

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Array lists (or just "lists" in Python) are like arrays, but they can grow dynamically.

An array list initially has a size (e.g., 10 in Python), but if you add more
than 10 elements, the array list automatically increases its size to
accommodate the new values. This avoids the size limitations of arrays.

Dictionaries
Dictionaries store values using key-value pairs.

Each value is associated with a unique key.

You access values using their keys.
Keys must be unique; reusing a key will result in an error.
The same value can be associated with multiple different keys.

Think of a dictionary like a set of labeled boxes. Each box contains a value,
and each box has a unique key to identify it. To get the value, you use the
key.

Example: A dictionary of store prices:

Key Value

"apples" $1
"milk" $2
"bread" $3

To get the price of bread, you use the key "bread".

Searching Algorithms
Searching algorithms are methods to find a specific piece of data in a list (like an
array). The goal is to find the data as quickly as possible.

They typically return the index of the data in the list. This index can then
be used to access, modify, or update the data. Many applications (like
hospital patient databases) rely on fast searching algorithms.

Searching Algorithms

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Linear Search
A linear search iterates through a list, comparing each element to the target
value.
It's simple to implement but inefficient for large lists.
Worst-case scenario: O(n) - checks the entire list.
Average case: O(n/2) - checks roughly half the list.
Works with both sorted and unsorted lists.

Think of searching for your name on a class roster: you start at the
beginning and check each name until you find yours (or reach the end).

Binary Search
Binary search is significantly more efficient than linear search but requires a
sorted list.
It works by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. If the target value is
less than the middle element, the search continues in the lower half; otherwise,
it continues in the upper half. This process continues until the target value is
found or the search interval is empty.
Worst-case scenario: O(log2 n) - much faster than linear search for large lists.
This is because with each step we are effectively halving the amount of
elements we have to search.

Imagine searching for a word in a dictionary. You don't start from page
one; you open to the middle and check if your word comes before or after.
You repeat this process, narrowing down your search until you find the
word.

Example: Searching for "Brendan" in a sorted list:

1. Find the middle element.
2. Compare the middle element to "Brendan".
3. If "Brendan" comes before the middle element, search the first half;
otherwise, search the second half.
4. Repeat until "Brendan" is found or the search interval is empty.

Algorithm Efficiency: Big O Notation

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Big O notation describes the worst-case time complexity of an algorithm. It

expresses how the runtime grows as the input size (n) increases.
Linear search: O(n)
Binary search: O(log2 n)
Algorithm Sorted List? Worst-Case Average Case

Linear Search No O(n) O(n/2)

Binary Search Yes O(log₂ n) O(log₂ n)

Efficiency of Search Algorithms

Binary Search: O(log n) worst-case and average-case time complexity. This is
significantly more efficient than a linear search.
Linear Search: Less efficient than binary search. The exact time complexity
wasn't specified in the lecture.

Recursion in Programming
Recursion: Functions that repeatedly call themselves. One of the
instructions within the function is a call to that same function.

Example: A recursive function might take an integer as an argument, perform

operations on it, and then call itself again with a modified integer.

Recursive Sum Example

This example demonstrates a recursive function that sums numbers from 1 to n.

1. Function Definition: An integer function taking an integer n as an argument.

2. Base Case: The condition that stops the recursion. In this example, the base
case is when n ≤ 1. It's crucial to have a base case to avoid infinite recursion and
stack overflow errors.
If the base case (n ≤ 1) is met, the function returns n.
3. Recursive Step: If the base case is not met, the function returns n + the result of
calling the function recursively with n - 1.

Example Walkthrough (n = 3):

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recursiveSum(3): 3 is not ≤ 1, so it returns 3 + recursiveSum(2)

recursiveSum(2): 2 is not ≤ 1, so it returns 2 + recursiveSum(1)
recursiveSum(1): 1 ≤ 1, so it returns 1
Substituting back: recursiveSum(2) returns 2 + 1 = 3
Substituting back again: recursiveSum(3) returns 3 + 3 = 6

The Stack Data Structure

Stack: A data structure containing tasks for your program to complete. It
follows a LIFO (Last-In, First-Out) structure.

Tasks are added to the stack.

Tasks are resolved in reverse order of addition (like a stack of stones).

Infinite Loops and Stack Overflow:

If a recursive function lacks a base case, it leads to an infinite loop. The stack
continuously grows until a stack overflow error occurs, causing the program to
crash. This is analogous to endlessly adding chores without ever completing one.

How Recursion Uses the Stack

1. The initial function call is added to the stack.
2. Each recursive call adds another function call to the stack.
3. This continues until the base case is reached.
4. Then, the stack is processed in reverse order (LIFO), resolving each function call.

Recursion and Pseudocode Strategies

Recursion's Efficiency
Recursion, by repeatedly calling the same function, breaks down problems into
smaller, easier-to-solve parts.
This approach is more efficient than tackling the entire problem at once because
smaller problems require less computational power.
The computer combines these small solutions to arrive at the final answer.

Soft Skills in Computer Science

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The majority of a computer scientist's job involves thinking about code,

not just writing it. Successful programming requires significant problem-
solving skills.

Optimizing systems
Designing app features
Programming game mechanics

Good programs are not created by simply starting to write code. Careful
planning is essential.

Pseudocode: Planning Your Code

Pseudocode is a way to plan a program before writing actual code. It's like
planning a family trip to the Grand Canyon: you wouldn't just jump in the
car without a plan.

Pseudocode (pseudo meaning "not real" and code meaning "code") helps you
focus on the program's logic without worrying about syntax or variable names.
It's similar to outlining an essay.

Pseudocode Strategies

Flowcharts
Flowcharts graphically represent a function's flow. They use blocks for
conditional statements and loops, connected by arrows to show the
different paths.

Easy to visualize the function's purpose.

Simple to create test cases and identify errors (e.g., missing paths).
Blocks can easily be converted into programming statements.
Example: A flowchart for a function that returns true if the input is 8 and false
otherwise.

Chronological Write-Up
This method involves writing down the program's steps chronologically,
focusing on what the program should do rather than the specific code.

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Example: An app that takes two numbers and divides them. The pseudocode
would outline prompting for the first number, then the second, performing the
division, and returning the result.
Useful for preventing oversight of algorithm parts or necessary functions.

Feature-Based Outline
This strategy outlines the main user features and the functions needed to
implement them.

Example: A banking interface with options to create a new account or log into
an existing one. Logged-in users can withdraw, deposit, take out loans, or pay
back loans.
Similar to flowcharts, but at a higher level of abstraction. Useful for preventing
last-minute additions.

Planning Your Program

Pseudocode: A method for planning program functionality by listing functions.
Using pseudocode can drastically minimize errors and stress. You can use
existing methods, a mix of methods, create your own, or even forgo pseudocode
entirely—the goal is error reduction.

Choosing a Programming Language

High-level languages: These have a high level of abstraction from machine
language (the series of 0s and 1s). Examples include block programming, which
uses drag-and-drop interfaces. The highest level would ideally involve writing
instructions in simple English.

Low-level languages: These have a low level of abstraction from machine

language. The lowest level would be directly inputting 0s and 1s, which is
impractical.

Language Selection: The best language depends on your project. Specialized

tasks often require specialized languages.

Popular Languages and Their Uses

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Language
Language Uses
Category

Markup HTML Website content

CSS Website styling
Scripting JavaScript Web development, enhancing user experience
Perl, PHP,
Web development, scripting tasks
Ajax
Game development, interactive web pages,
General Purpose Java
applications
C++ Applications, system programs
Python Web scripting, applications, data analysis

General purpose languages offer broad applications. The choice often

comes down to personal preference and familiarity with syntax.

Next Steps in Learning to Program

Research: Investigate your chosen language using official websites or
Wikipedia to confirm your interest.

Tutorials: Watch introductory series (like the one you're currently watching)
and subsequent tutorials to grasp syntax and rules.

Practice: Use websites like Codingbat (free Java and Python coding challenges)
to hone skills and learn shortcuts. Overcoming "programmer's block" can
involve finding inspirational projects.

Websites to Hone Your Coding Skills

Coderbyte: Offers 200+ challenges in 10+ languages.
HackerRank: Provides programming challenges and job/internship support.

High School Programming Courses

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AP Computer Science Principles: A foundational course covering

computational thinking and programming concepts.

This course provides a broad introduction to computer science,

focusing on the fundamental concepts and principles rather than in-
depth programming skills.

AP Computer Science A: A more advanced course focusing on Java

programming.

This course delves into Java programming, covering data structures,

algorithms, and object-oriented programming.

Other high school offerings may include courses on:

Data Structures
Game Design
Data Science

Further Exploration
GitHub Contributions: Contribute to open-source projects to collaborate with
others and gain experience.
Personal Projects: Develop your own projects to explore your interests and
build your portfolio. Collaboration with others is also possible.

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