Direct current (DC) is an electric current that is uni-directional, so the flow

of charge is always in the same direction.[2] As opposed to alternating

current, the direction and amperage of direct currents do not change. It is
used in many household electronics and in all devices that use batteries.[3]

Properties
Direct current is defined by the constant flow of electrons (see figure 1) from
an area of high electron density to an area of low electron density.
In circuits involving batteries, this is illustrated by the constant flow
of charge from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive terminal of
the battery. It is much more expensive and difficult to change the voltage of
direct current as opposed to alternating current, making it a poor choice for
the high voltage transmission of electricity. However, for very long
distances, HVDC transmission can be more efficient than alternating
current[2].

Uses
Direct current is used in any electronic device with a battery for a power
source. It is also used to charge batteries, so rechargeable devices like
laptops and cell phones come with an AC adapter that converts alternating
current to direct current[2].

the analogy between current flow and water flow.Current

flow and water flow can be compared to each other as they

both involve the movement of something, current flow being

the movement of electric charge and water flow being the

movement of water molecules.Both of these phenomena

have similarities in the way they behave and are affected by

different factors. A diagram can be used to illustrate the

analogy between these two types of flow.Let's say we have a

river flowing from the top of a hill to the bottom. The water

in the river is similar to the electric charge in a wire. Both of

these are forms of flow, one being a fluid flow and the other

an electric flow

like the water molecules in the river, electric charge flows in

a circuit and encounters resistance along the way, just as

the water encounters obstacles as it flows down the river.

When there is a break in the circuit, it's like a dam blocking

the flow of water in a river. Both of these situations cause

the flow to stop.In conclusion, the analogy between current

flow and water flow can be illustrated using a diagram that

shows the similarities between these two types of flow. Both

involve the movement of something, electric charge and

water molecules respectively.

DC Circuit
Definition: The closed path in which the direct current

flows is called the DC circuit. The current flows in only

one direction and it is mostly used in low voltage

applications. The resistor is the main component of the

DC circuit.
A simple DC circuit is shown in the figure below which

contains a DC source (battery), a load lamp, a switch,

connecting leads, and measuring instruments like

ammeter and voltmeter.The load resistor is connected in

series, parallel or series-parallel combination as per

requirement.

Types of DC
Circuit

The DC electric circuit is mainly classified into three

groups. They are the series DC circuit, parallel DC

circuit, and series and parallel DC circuit.

DC Series Circuit

The circuit in which have DC series source, and the

number of resistors are connected end to end so that

same current flow through them is called a DC series

circuit. The figure below shows the simple series circuit.

In the series circuit the resistor R1, R2, and R3 are

connected in series across a supply voltage of V volts.

The same current I is flowing through all the three

resistors. If V1, V2, and

V3 are the voltage drop across the three resistor R1, R2,

and R3respectively, then Let R be the

total resistance of the circuit then,

Total resistance = Sum of the individual resistance.

In such type of circuit all the lamps are controlled by the

single switch and they cannot be controlled

individually.The most common application of this circuit

is for decoration purpose where a number of low voltage

lamps are connected in series.

DC Parallel Circuit
The circuit which have DC source and one end of all the

resistors is joined to a common point and other end are

also joined to another common point so that current

flows through them is called a DC parallel circuit.

The figure shows a simple parallel circuit. In this circuit

the three resistor R1, R2, and R3 are connected in

parallel across a supply voltage of V volts. The current

flowing through them is I1, I2 and I3respectively.

The total current drawn by the

circuit Let R be the total or effective

resistance of the circuit, then Reciprocal

of total resistance = sum of reciprocal of the individual

resistance..
All the resistance is operated to the same voltage,

therefore all of them are connected in parallel. Each of

them can be controlled individually with the help of a

separate switch.

DC Series-Parallel Circuit

The circuit in which series and parallel circuit are

connected in series is called a series parallel circuit.The

figure below show the series-parallel circuit. In this

circuit, two resistor R1 and R2 are connected in parallel

with each other across terminal AB. The other three

resistors R3, R4 and R6 are connected in parallel with

each other across terminal BC.

The two groups of

resistor RAB and RBCare connected in series with each

other across the supply voltage of V volts. The total or

effective resistance of the whole circuit can be

determined as given below Similarly,

Total or effective

resistance of the ciruit,

R = RAB + RBc

hm's Law
Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference. The current
that flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it.

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all
physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called

Resistance and has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω.

The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current and
resistance respectively as follows:
Ohm’s Law Solved Problems

Example 1: If the resistance of an electric iron is 50 Ω and a current

of 3.2 A flows through the resistance. Find the voltage between two
points.

Solution:

If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and
resistance, then cover V in the triangle. Now, we are left with I and R or more
precisely I × R.

Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:

V=I×R

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

V = 3.2 A × 50 Ω = 160 V

V = 160V

Example 2: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive

electrical appliance (a light bulb). An electric current of 2.0 A flows
through it. Consider the conducting wires to be resistance-free.
Calculate the resistance offered by the electrical appliance.

Solution:

When we are asked to determine the value of resistance when the values of
voltage and current are given, we cover R in the triangle. This leaves us with
only V and I, more precisely V ÷ I.

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

R=V÷I
R=8V÷2A=4Ω

R=4Ω

Electrical Conductivity is an intrinsic property of a material which is defined as

the measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry.
Electrical conductivity is also known as specific conductance, and the SI unit is
Siemens per meter (S/m). It is also defined as the ratio of the current density
to the electric field strength. It is represented by the Greek letter σ.

What Is Electrical Resistivity?

Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of electrical conductivity. It is the
measure of the ability of a material to oppose the flow of current.

 Metals are good conductors of electricity. Hence, they have low

resistivity.
 The insulators like rubber, glass, graphite, plastics, etc. have very high
resistivity when compared to the metallic conductors.
 The third type is the semiconductor which comes in between the
conductors and insulators. Their resistivity decreases with the increase in
temperature and is also affected by the presence of impurities in them.
Relation between resistance and resistivity:

1. Current is the aggregate flow of electrons through a wire and can be

defined as the rate of electron flow. Resistance is defined as an opposition to
current flow.
2. Electrical resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that
measures how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a
material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly
represented by the Greek letter
3. , R = pl/A, pis where is the resistivity, A is the cross sectional area
and, l is the length of the conductor.
4. Resistance is directly proportional to the resistivity.
Series and Parallel Circuits Circuits
When there are two or more electrical devices in a circuit with an energy source, there are a
couple of basic ways by which we connect them. They can either be connected in series or in
parallel combinations. A series circuit is a circuit in which two components share a common node
and the same current flows through them. However, in a parallel circuit, components share two
common nodes. In this article, let us look at more differences between series connection and
parallel connection circuits.
 Difference Between Series and Parallel
Circuits

Series Parallel

The same amount of The current flowing

current flows through through each
all the components component combines
to form the current
flow through the
source.

In an electrical circuit, In an electrical circuit,

components are components are
arranged in a line arranged parallel to
each other

When resistors are put When resistors are put

in a series circuit, the in a parallel circuit, the
 voltage across each voltage across each of
resistor is different the resistors is the
even though the same. Even the
current flow is the polarities are the same
same through all of
them.

If one component Other components will

breaks down, the function even if one
whole circuit will burn component breaks
out. down, each has its own
independent circuit

If Vt is the total voltage If

then it is equal to V1 +
V2+V3

What Are Kirchhoff’s Laws?

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, developed a pair of laws that deal with the
conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two laws are commonly known
as Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law. These laws help calculate the electrical resistance of a
complex network or impedance in the case of AC and the current flow in different network
streams. In the next section, let us look at what these laws state.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law goes by several names: Kirchhoff’s First Law and Kirchhoff’s
Junction Rule. According to the Junction rule, the total of the currents in a junction is equal to the
sum of currents outside the junction in a circuit.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law goes by several names: Kirchhoff’s Second Law and Kirchhoff’s
Loop Rule. According to the loop rule, the sum of the voltages around the closed loop is equal to
null.

Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law

According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law,

The total current entering a junction or a node is equal to the

charge leaving the node as no charge is lost.
Put differently, the algebraic sum of every current entering and leaving the
node has to be null. This property of Kirchhoff law is commonly
called conservation of charge, wherein I(exit) + I(enter) = 0.

In the above figure, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the node is considered
positive, likewise, the currents I4 and I5 exiting the nodes is considered
negative in values. This can be expressed in the form of an equation:

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
A node refers to a junction connecting two or more current-carrying routes
like cables and other components. Kirchhoff’s current law can also be applied
to analyse parallel circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage

Law
According to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every voltage drop
in the same loop for any closed network and equals zero.
Put differently, the algebraic sum of every voltage in the loop has to be equal
to zero and this property of Kirchhoff’s law is called conservation of energy.

When you begin at any point of the loop and continue in the same direction,
note the voltage drops in all the negative or positive directions and returns to
the same point. It is essential to maintain the direction either
counterclockwise or clockwise; otherwise, the final voltage value will not be
zero. The voltage law can also be applied in analyzing circuits in series.

When either AC circuits or DC circuits are analyses based on Kirchhoff’s circuit

laws, you need to be clear with all the terminologies and definitions that
describe the circuit components like paths, nodes, meshes, and loops.

Kirchhoff’s Law Solved Example

If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, determine the electric current that flows
in the circuit below.

Solution:

.
Following are the things that you should keep in mind while approaching the
problem:

1.
. You need to choose the direction of the current. In this
problem, let us choose the clockwise direction.
. When the current flows across the resistor, there is a
potential decrease. Hence, V = IR is signed negative.
. If the current moves from low to high, then the emf (E)
source is signed positive because of the energy charging at the emf source.
Likewise, if the current moves from high to low voltage (+ to -), then the
source of emf (E) is signed negative because of the emptying of energy at the
emf source.
In this solution, the direction of the current is the same as the direction of
clockwise rotation.
– IR1 + E1 – IR2 – IR3 – E2 = 0
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
–2I + 10 – 4I – 6I – 5 = 0
-12I + 5 = 0
I = -5/-12
I = 0.416 A The electric current that flows in the circuit is 0.416 A. The electric
current is signed positive which means that the direction of the electric
current is the same as the direction of clockwise rotation. If the electric
current is negative then the direction of the current would be in anti-clockwise
direction.

SSuperposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, bilateral network where more than one source is
present, the response across any element in the circuit is the sum of the responses obtained from
each source considered separately. In contrast, all other sources are replaced by their internal
resistance. Let us know more about the superposition theorem, solved examples and limitations.

What is Superposition Theorem?

The superposition theorem is a circuit analysis theorem used to solve the network where two or
more sources are present and connected.

Superposition theorem states the following:

“In any linear and bilateral network or circuit having multiple

independent sources, the response of an element will be equal
to the algebraic sum of the responses of that element by
considering one source at a time.”
To calculate the individual contribution of each source in a circuit, the other source must be
replaced or removed without affecting the final result. This is done by replacing the voltage source
with a short circuit. While removing a voltage source, its value is set to zero. When removing a
current source, its value is set to infinite. This is done by replacing the current source with an open
circuit.

The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis because it converts a complex
circuit into a Norton or The ven in equivalent circuit.

Guidelines to keep in mind while using the superposition theorem

 When you sum the individual contributions of each source, you should be careful while
assigning signs to the quantities. It is suggested to assign a reference direction to each unknown
quantity. If a contribution from a source has the same direction as the reference direction, it has
a positive sign in the sum; if it has the opposite direction, then a negative sign.
 All the components must be linear to use the superposition theorem with circuit
currents and voltages.
 It should be noted that the superposition theorem does not apply to power, as power is
not a linear quantity.

How to Apply Superposition Theorem?

 The first step is to select one among the multiple sources present in
the bilateral network. Among the various sources in the circuit, any one of the
sources can be considered first.
 Except for the selected source, all the sources must be replaced by
their internal impedance.
 Using a network simplification approach, evaluate the current flowing
through or the voltage drop across a particular element in the network.
 The same considering a single source is repeated for all the other
sources in the circuit.
 Upon obtaining the respective response for individual source, perform
the summation of all responses to get the overall voltage drop or current
through the circuit element.

Superposition Theorem Solved Example

Let us understand how to use the superposition theorem to analyze circuits
with the help of an example.

Example 1: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω using the superposition

theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: First, let us find the current flowing through a circuit by considering
only the 20 V voltage source. The current source can be open-circuited,
hence, the modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 2: The nodal voltage V1 can be determined using the nodal analysis
method.

The nodal equation at node 1 is written as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found using the following
equation:

Substituting the value of the V1 in the above equation, we get

I1 = 0.4 A

Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor to due 20 V voltage

source is 0.4 A.

Step 3: Now let us find out the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor
considering only the 4 A current source. We eliminate the 20 V voltage source
by short-circuiting it. The modified circuit, therefore, is given as follows:
In the above circuit, the resistors 5 Ω and 10 Ω are parallel to each other, and
this parallel combination of resistors is in series with the 10 Ω resistor.
Therefore, the equivalent resistance will be:

Now, the simplified circuit is shown as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be determined using the
current division principle.

Substituting the values, we get

Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit when only 4 A current
source is 1.6 A.

Step 4: The summation of currents I1 and I2 will give us the current flowing
through the 20 Ω resistor. Mathematically, this is represented as follows:

I = I 1 + I2

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation, we get

I = 0.4+1.6 = 2 A

Therefore, the current flowing through the resistor is 2 A.

Limitations of Superposition Theorem

 The theorem does not apply to non-linear circuits. The requisite of

linearity indicates that the superposition theorem is only applicable to
determine voltage and current but not power. Power dissipation is a nonlinear
function that does not algebraically add to an accurate total when only one
source is considered at a time.
 The application of the superposition theorem requires two or more
sources in the circuit.

Temperature Coefficient
of Resistance
The rate of resistance change based on temperature is referred to as the
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. It is indicated in units of ppm/C and
determined from the resistance change from the reference temperature and
the change in temperature.