Introduction to Computer Network

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A

node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network. Software modules in one system are used to
communicate with one or more software modules in the distance System. Such interfaces across
a distance are termed as “peer-to-peer” interfaces; and the local interfaces are termed as
“service” interfaces. The modules on each end are organized as a sequence of functions called
“layers”. The set of modules organized as layers is also commonly called a “protocol stack”.
Over the years, some layered models have been standardized. The ISO Open Systems
Interconnection (ISO/OSI) layered model has seven layers and was developed by a set of
committees under the auspices of International Standards Organization (ISO).
Classification of Computer Networks:
1.Based on Transmission Mode
Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are
three types of transmission modes.
1. Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only one can
transmit and the other can only receive.
2. Half-Duplex
In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station can sent and
receive but not at the same time.
3. Full-Duplex
In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
2. Based on Time in Transmission Type
 Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous Transmission both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle for the
transmission. We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and
given error rate. Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay after leaving the
source.
 Asynchronous Transmission
In Asynchronous Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning and one stop bit at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets.
Packets are received with varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some packets are
not received correctly.

3. Based on Authentication
 Peer to Peer Connection
In peer-to-peer networks, there are no dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and, therefore,
are termed as peers. Normally, each computer functions as both a client and a server. No one can
control the other computers.
 Server Based Connection
Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network which
functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client or a workstation. A dedicated server is
optimized to service requests from network clients. A server can control the clients for its
services.

4. Based on Geographical location

1 .Local Area Networks (LAN)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1 .Local Area Networks (LAN):
1. LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
computer and workstations can share data, tools and programs.
2. The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of
switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol.
3. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
4. Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are limited.
5. LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are
Privately owned.
6. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. 
7. LAN is easy to design and maintain.
8. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables.
9. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
10. Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range.
11. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
12. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

1. MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and
Smaller area as compared to WAN.
2. Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network to spread over the city.
3. It may be a single network or a network in which more than one local area network can
share their Resources.
4. It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or different
cities.
5. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
 6. MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN
ranges in terms of Mbps.
7. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
8. The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network.
9. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
10. Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and Wire/Cable.
11. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company network that can
12. Provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

1. WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country.
2. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via telephone lines
and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or
accessible to the public.
3. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
4. There are two types of WAN:
a) Switched WAN b) Point-to-Point WAN
5. WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
6. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in
the network.
7. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link.
8. Due to long distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
9. WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased
10. Distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc.
11. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second
(Mbps).
12. Example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network and
Point-to-Point WAN is dial-up line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

MESH:

A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the network. A
mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh topology. In a full
mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other computers in
that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2 In a partially connected mesh
topology, at least two of the computers in the network have connections to multiple other
computers in that network. It is an inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. If
one of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology

1. Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit
data simultaneously.

2. A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission
of data.

3. Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.

Disadvantages of a mesh topology

1. The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a

less desirable option.

2. Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.

3. The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs
and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this configuration,
every node connects to a central network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The central
network device acts as a server and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type
of network card used in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network
cable is used to connect computers together.

Advantages of star topology

1. Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central

computer, hub, or switch.

2. Easy to add another computer to the network.

3. If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
function normally.
4. The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs
often use a star topology with a central hub.

Disadvantages of star topology

1. Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as
the central network device.
2. The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the
network can handle.
 3. If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all
computers are disconnected from the network.
BUS:
a line topology , a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network
device are connected to a single cable or backbone.

Advantages of bus topology

1. It works well when you have a small network.

2. It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals

in a linear fashion.

3. It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.

2. It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.

3. Bus topology is not great for large networks.

4. Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.

5. Additional devices slow the network down.

6. If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

 RING:
A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections create a
circular data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the
next until they reach their destination. Most ring topologies allow packets to travel
only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to
move in either direction, called bidirectional . The major disadvantage of a ring
topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken, the entire
network is affected. Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks
(LANs or wide area networks (WANs).

Advantages of ring topology

1. All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.

2. A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between

each workstation.

3. Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.

4. Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of

the network.
Disadvantages of ring topology

1. All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on
the network, which can make it slower than a star topology .

2. The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.

 3. The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Reference model :

ISO-OSI:
There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world.
So to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed
which are compatible to communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO
stands for international organization of Standardization. This is called a model for Open
System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly known as OSI model.
The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a

complete communication system. They are:

1. Application Layer

2. Presentation Layer

3. Session Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Network Layer

6. Datalink Layer

7. Physical Layer
An exchange using the OSI model:
Principles of OSI Reference Model
The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized
as follows:
 A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that
architecture does not become unwieldly.
Functions of Different Layers

The Physical Layer :

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over

network.

4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.

5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.

6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the
physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled
by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the
Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop,
when the frame buffers are full.