EDITED BY

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 1
critical discourse studies:
history, agenda, theory and
methodology

RUTH WODAK AND MICHAEL MEYER

CONTENTS
CDS – What is it all about? 2
A brief history of ‘the Group’ 4
The common ground: discourse, critique, power and ideology 5
The notion of discourse 5
The critical impetus 6
Ideology and power – a kaleidoscopic view 8
Research agenda and challenges 12
Methodological issues: theory, methods, analysis, interpretation 13
Theoretical grounding and objectives 16
Major approaches to CDS 17
Data collection 21
Summary 21

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

Keywords
ideology, power, discourse, critique, methodology, levels of theory, approaches
to critical discourse studies

CDS – What is it all about?

The manifold roots of critical discourse studies lie in rhetoric, text linguistics,
anthropology, philosophy, social psychology, cognitive science, literary studies
and sociolinguistics, as well as in applied linguistics and pragmatics. Teun van
Dijk (2008) provides a broad overview of the field of discourse studies and iden-
tifies the following developments: between the mid-1960s and the early 1970s,
new, closely related disciplines emerged in the humanities and the social
sciences. Despite their different disciplinary backgrounds and a great diversity
of methods and objects of investigation, some parts of the new fields/para-
digms/linguistic subdisciplines of semiotics, pragmatics, psycho- and sociolinguistics,
ethnography of speaking, conversation analysis and discourse studies all dealt and
continue to deal with discourse and have at least seven dimensions in common
(see also Angermuller et al. 2014):

•• An interest in the properties of ‘naturally occurring’ language use by real lan-

guage users (instead of a study of abstract language systems and invented
examples).
•• A focus on larger units than isolated words and sentences, and hence, new basic
units of analysis: texts, discourses, conversations, speech acts, or communi-
cative events.
•• The extension of linguistics beyond sentence grammar towards a study of
action and interaction.
•• The extension to non-verbal (semiotic, multimodal, visual) aspects of interaction
and communication: gestures, images, film, the internet and multimedia.
•• A focus on dynamic (socio)-cognitive or interactional moves and strategies.
•• The study of the functions of (social, cultural, situative and cognitive) con-
texts of language use.
•• Analysis of a vast number of phenomena of text grammar and language use:
coherence, anaphora, topics, macrostructures, speech acts, interactions,
turn-taking, signs, politeness, argumentation, rhetoric, mental models and
many other aspects of text and discourse.

The significant difference between discourse studies and critical discourse studies
lies in the constitutive problem-oriented, interdisciplinary approach of the latter, apart
from endorsing all of the above points. CDS is therefore not interested in investigat-
ing a linguistic unit per se but in analysing, understanding and explaining social
phenomena that are necessarily complex and thus require a multidisciplinary and
multi-methodical approach (Wodak 2012c; van Dijk 2013). The objects under
investigation do not have to be related to negative or exceptionally ‘serious’

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

social or political experiences or events: this is a frequent misunderstanding of

the aims and goals of CDS and of the term ‘critical’ which, of course, does not
mean ‘negative’ as in common sense usage (see below; Chilton et al. 2010). Any
social phenomenon lends itself to critical investigation, to be challenged and not
taken for granted. We will return to this important point and other common
misunderstandings of CDS below. To quote Teun van Dijk (2013) in this respect:

Contrary to popular belief and unfortunate claims of many papers submitted

to discourse journals, CDA is not a method of critical discourse analysis. This may
sound paradoxical, but I am afraid it isn’t. Think about it. Indeed, what would
be the systematic, explicit, detailed, replicable procedure for doing ‘critical’
analysis? There is no such method. Being critical, first of all, is a state of mind,
an attitude, a way of dissenting, and many more things, but not an explicit
method for the description of the structures or strategies of text and talk. So, in
that sense, people who want to practice CDA may be supposed to do so
from a perspective of opposition, for instance against power abuse through
discourse. [….]. Methodologically, CDA is as diverse as DA in general, or indeed
other directions in linguistics, psychology or the social sciences. Thus, CDA
studies may do so in terms of grammatical (phonological, morphological,
syntactic), semantic, pragmatic, interactional rhetorical, stylistic, narrative or
genre analyses, among others, on the one hand, and through experiments,
ethnography, interviewing, life stories, focus groups, participant observation,
and so on, on the other hand. A good method is a method that is able to give a
satisfactory (reliable, relevant, etc.) answer to the questions of a research project.
It depends on one’s aims, expertise, time and goals, and the kind of data that
can or must be generated – that is, on the context of a research project. […]
So, there is not ‘a’ or ‘one’ method of CDA, but many. Hence, I recommend
to use the term Critical Discourse Studies for the theories, methods, analyses,
applications and other practices of critical discourse analysts, and to forget
about the confusing term ‘CDA’. So, please, no more ‘I am going to apply CDA’
because it does not make sense. Do critical discourse analysis by formulating
critical goals, and then explain by what specific explicit methods you want to
realize it. (emphasis added)

In this volume, we take Van Dijk’s proposal very seriously: we would like to
emphasize that each of the approaches introduced in this book cannot be iso-
lated from specific complex social issues under investigation, from research
questions and research interests. Below, we elaborate what the concept of ‘critique’
implies for the social sciences, and thus also for critical discourse studies.
The notions of text and discourse have to be discussed thoroughly in this con-
text; they have been subject to a hugely proliferating number of usages in the
social sciences. Almost no paper or article is to be found that does not revisit these
notions, quoting Michel Foucault, Jürgen Habermas, Chantal Mouffe, Ernesto
Laclau, Niklas Luhmann, or many others. Thus, discourse means anything from a
historical monument, a lieu de mémoire, a policy, a political strategy, narratives in
a restricted or broad sense of the term, text, talk, a speech, topic-related conversa-
tions, to language per se. We find notions such as racist discourse, gendered
discourse, discourses on un/employment, media discourse, populist discourse,

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

discourses of the past, and many more – thus stretching the meaning of discourse
from a genre to a register or style, from a building to a political programme. This
causes and must cause confusion – which leads to much criticism and more mis-
understandings (see Flowerdew 2014; Hart and Cap 2014; Richardson et al. 2013;
Wodak 2012a). This is why the contributors to this volume were asked to define
their use of the term as integrated in their specific approach.

A brief history of ‘the Group’

CDS as a network of scholars emerged in the early 1990s, following a small
symposium in Amsterdam, in January 1991. Through the support of the
University of Amsterdam, Teun van Dijk, Norman Fairclough, Gunther Kress,
Theo van Leeuwen and Ruth Wodak spent two days together, and had the
opportunity to discuss theories and methods of discourse analysis, specifically
critical discourse analysis (CDA) (which was the term used in the 1990s and
2000s). The meeting made it possible to confront the very distinct and different
approaches and discuss these with each other, all of which have, of course,
changed significantly since 1991 but remain important, in many respects. In
this process of group formation, differences and sameness were laid out: differ-
ences with regard to other theories and methodologies in discourse analysis
(Renkema 2004; Titscher et al. 2000; Wetherell et al. 2001; Wodak and
Krzyżanowski 2008) and sameness in a more programmatic way, both of which
frame the range of theoretical approaches (Wodak 2012a). In the meantime,
some of the scholars previously aligned with CDS have chosen other theoretical
frameworks and have distanced themselves from CDS (such as Gunther Kress
and Ron Scollon [who unfortunately died in 2008]); on the other hand, new
approaches have been created which frequently find innovative ways of
integrating the more traditional theories or of elaborating them (see below).

In general, CDS as a school or paradigm is characterized by a number of

principles: for example, all approaches are problem-oriented, and thus neces-
sarily interdisciplinary and eclectic. Moreover, CDS approaches are characterized
by the common interests in deconstructing ideologies and power through the
systematic and retroductable investigation of semiotic data (written, spoken or
visual). CDS researchers also attempt to make their own positionings and inter-
ests explicit while retaining their respective scientific methodologies and
remaining self-reflective of their own research process.

The start of the CDS network was marked by the launch of van Dijk’s journal
Discourse & Society (1990) as well as by several books that coincidentally or
because of a Zeitgeist were published simultaneously and were led by similar
research goals.1 The Amsterdam meeting determined an institutional start, an
attempt both to constitute an exchange programme (ERASMUS for three years)2
as well as joint projects and collaborations between scholars of different coun-
tries. A special issue of Discourse & Society (1993), which presented the above

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

mentioned approaches, was the first visible and material outcome. Since then
new journals have been launched, multiple overviews have been written, hand-
books and readers commissioned and nowadays critical discourse studies is an
established paradigm in linguistics; currently, we encounter Critical Discourse
Studies, The Journal of Language and Politics, Discourse & Communication, Discourse &
Society and Visual Communication, among many other journals; several e-journals
also publish critical research, such as CADAAD. Book series attract much criti-
cally oriented research (such as Discourse Approaches to Politics, Culture and
Society), regular CDS meetings and conferences take place and collaborative
interdisciplinary projects are under way. In sum, CDS has become an established
discipline, institutionalized across the globe in many departments and curricula.

The common ground: discourse, critique,

power and ideology
When deconstructing the label of this research programme, we necessarily have to
first define what CDS means when it employs the terms ‘critical’ and ‘discourse’.
It is important to stress that CDS has never been and has never attempted to be or
to provide one single or specific theory. Neither is one specific methodology char-
acteristic of research in CDS. Quite the contrary, studies in CDS are multifarious,
derived from quite different theoretical backgrounds, oriented towards different
data and methodologies. Researchers in CDS also rely on a variety of grammatical
approaches. The definitions of the terms ‘discourse’, ‘critical’, ‘ideology’, ‘power’
and so on are therefore manifold. Thus, any criticism of CDS should always specify
which research or researcher they relate to. Hence, we suggest using the notion of
a ‘school’ for CDS, or of a programme, which many researchers find useful and to
which they can relate. This programme or set of principles has, of course, changed
over the years (see Fairclough and Wodak 1997; Wodak 1996, 2012a).
Such a heterogeneous school might be confusing for some; on the other hand,
it allows for continuous debates, for changes in the aims and goals, and for inno-
vation. In contrast to ‘closed’ theories, for example Chomsky’s Generative
Transformational Grammar or Michael Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics,
CDS scholars have never had the reputation of being a dogmatic ‘sect’ and – as
far as we are aware – do not want to have such a reputation.
This heterogeneity of methodological and theoretical approaches that can be
found in this field confirm Van Dijk’s point that CDS and critical linguistics ‘are
at most a shared perspective on doing linguistic, semiotic or discourse analysis’
(van Dijk 1993: 131; see also above). Below, we summarize some of these
principles, which are adhered to by most researchers.

The notion of discourse

Critical discourse studies see ‘language as social practice’ (Fairclough and Wodak
1997), and consider the ‘context of language use’ to be crucial. We quote one
definition which has become ‘very popular’ amongst CDS researchers:

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CDS see discourse – language use in speech and writing – as a form of ‘social
practice’. Describing discourse as social practice implies a dialectical relation-
ship between a particular discursive event and the situation(s), institution(s)
and social structure(s), which frame it: The discursive event is shaped by them,
but it also shapes them. That is, discourse is socially constitutive as well as
socially conditioned – it constitutes situations, objects of knowledge, and the
social identities of and relationships between people and groups of people. It
is constitutive both in the sense that it helps to sustain and reproduce the
social status quo, and in the sense that it contributes to transforming it. Since
discourse is so socially consequential, it gives rise to important issues of power.
Discursive practices may have major ideological effects – that is, they can help
produce and reproduce unequal power relations between (for instance) social
classes, women and men, and ethnic/cultural majorities and minorities
through the ways in which they represent things and position people. (Fairclough
and Wodak 1997: 258)

Thus CDS approaches understand discourses as relatively stable uses of lan-

guage serving the organization and structuring of social life. However, in the
German and Central European context, distinctions are made between ‘text’
and ‘discourse’ relating to the tradition in text linguistics as well as to rhetoric
(see Angermuller et al. 2014; Wodak 1996). In contrast to the above, in the
English-speaking world, ‘discourse’ is often used both for written and oral texts
(see Gee 2004; Schiffrin 1994). Other researchers distinguish between different
levels of abstractness: Lemke (1995) defines ‘text’ as the concrete realization of
abstract forms of knowledge (‘discourse’), thus adhering to a more Foucauldian
approach (see also Jäger and Maier in this volume). van Leeuwen (this volume)
emphasizes the practice-dimension of the concept of discourse whereas the
discourse-historical approach views ‘discourse’ as structured forms of knowl-
edge and ‘text’ refers to concrete oral utterances or written documents (Reisigl
and Wodak in this volume).

The critical impetus

The shared perspective and programme of CDS relate to the term ‘critical’,
which in the work of some ‘critical linguists’ can be traced to the influence of
the Frankfurt School and Jürgen Habermas (Anthonissen 2001; Fay 1987: 203;
Thompson 1988: 71ff.). ‘Critical theory’ in the sense of the Frankfurt School,
mainly based on the seminal 1937 essay by Max Horkheimer, means that social
theory should be oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole,
in contrast to traditional theory oriented solely to understanding or explaining
it. Core concepts of such an understanding of Critical Theory are: (1) Critical
Theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity,
and (2) Critical Theory should improve the understanding of society by inte-
grating all the major social sciences, including economics, sociology, history,
political science, anthropology and psychology.

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What is rarely reflected in this understanding of critique is the analyst’s position

itself. The social embeddedness of research and science, the fact that the
research system itself and thus CDS are also dependent on social structures,
and that criticism can by no means draw on an outside position but is itself
well integrated within social fields, has been emphasized by Pierre Bourdieu
(1984). Researchers, scientists and philosophers are not situated outside the
societal hierarchy of power and status but subject to this structure. They have
also frequently occupied and still occupy rather superior positions in society.
In language studies, the term ‘critical’ was first used to characterize an approach
that was called Critical Linguistics (Fowler et al. 1979; Kress and Hodge 1979).
Among other ideas, those scholars maintained that the use of language could lead
to mystification of social events which systematic analysis could elucidate. ‘For
example, a missing by-phrase in English passive constructions might be seen as an
ideological means for concealing or “mystifying” reference to an agent’ (Chilton
2008). One of the most significant principles of CDS is the important observation
that use of language is a ‘social practice’ that is both determined by social structure
and contributes to stabilizing and changing that structure simultaneously.
Critical theories, thus also CDS, want to produce and convey critical
knowledge that enables human beings to emancipate themselves from forms
of domination through self-reflection. Thus, they are aimed at producing
‘enlightenment and emancipation’. Such theories seek not only to describe and
explain, but also to root out a particular kind of delusion. Even with differing
concepts of ideology, Critical Theory seeks to create awareness in agents of their
own needs and interests. This was, of course, also taken up by Pierre Bourdieu’s
concepts of ‘violence symbolique’ and ‘méconnaissance’ (Bourdieu 1989).
In agreement with its Critical Theory predecessors, CDS emphasizes the need
for interdisciplinary work in order to gain a proper understanding of how lan-
guage functions in constituting and transmitting knowledge, in organizing
social institutions or in exercising power. In any case, CDS researchers have to
be aware that their own work is driven by social, economic and political motives
like any other academic work and that they are not in any superior position.
Naming oneself ‘critical’ only implies specific ethical standards: an intention to
make one’s position, research interests and values explicit and their criteria as
transparent as possible, without feeling the need to apologize for the critical
stance of their work (van Leeuwen 2006: 293).
Following Andrew Sayer (2009), there are different concepts of critique in
social sciences:

In a simple way, critique could merely indicate a critical attitude to other,

earlier, approaches to the study of society. Hence all social science should be
critical. If it goes further, critique shows that some of the concepts that are
influential in explaining social phenomena are false or ignore something sig-
nificant. In this sense, critical research is oriented towards the reduction of
illusion in society itself. It supports ‘subjugated knowledge’ against ‘dominant
knowledge’. This kind of critique implies a minimalist normative standpoint. The
idea of explanatory critique goes another step further as it explains why
specific false beliefs and concepts are held.

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

Critique in this sense implies that social phenomena could be different – and
can be altered. Societies are changeable, human beings are meaning-makers,
and the critical subject is not a detached observer but s/he looks at society with
a fresh and sceptical eye. Thus the subject is not external to discourses on which
s/he reflects. From this viewpoint, reflexivity has received increased attention.
Nevertheless, many scholars have difficulties in taking an explicit critical
standpoint nowadays (Sayer 2009): it is not only worries about essentialism and
ethnocentrism, it goes much deeper to the fact–value, science–ethics, positive–
normative dualisms of modernist thought. ‘The crisis of critique stems from an
evasion of the issue of conceptions of the good, and ethics’ (2009: 783).

Ideology and power – a kaleidoscopic view

The critical impetus of CDS is the legacy of enlightenment (Horkheimer and
Adorno 1991 [1969; 1974]). Critique regularly aims at revealing structures of
power and unmasking ideologies. Ideology is then not understood in a positiv-
istic way, i.e. ideologies cannot be subjected to a process of falsification. Nor is
it the Marxian type of ideology according to the economic base/superstructure
dichotomy that is of specific interest for CDS.

Political scientists name four central characteristics of ideologies:

1. Ideology must have power over cognition,

2. it is capable of guiding individuals’ evaluations,
3. it provides guidance through action, and
4. it must be logically coherent (Mullins 1972).

Although the core definition of ideology as a coherent and relatively stable set
of beliefs or values has remained the same in political science over time, the
connotations associated with this concept have undergone many transforma-
tions. During the era of fascism, communism and cold war, totalitarian
ideology was confronted with democracy, the evil with the good. If we speak
of the ‘ideology of the new capitalism’ (see Fairclough in this volume), ideol-
ogy once again has a ‘bad’ connotation. Clearly it is not easy to capture ideology
as a belief system and simultaneously to free the concept from negative
connotations (Knight 2006: 625).
It is, however, not that explicit type of ideology that interests CDS, it is rather
the more hidden and latent inherent in everyday-beliefs, which often appear
disguised as conceptual metaphors and analogies, thus attracting linguists’
attention: ‘life is a journey, social organizations are plants, love is war’ and so
on (Lakoff 1987; Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999). In everyday discussions,
certain ideas emerge more commonly than others. Frequently, people with
diverse backgrounds and interests may find themselves thinking alike in

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surprising ways. Dominant ideologies appear as ‘neutral’, linked to assumptions

that remain largely unchallenged. When most people in a society think alike
about certain matters, or even forget that there are alternatives to the status
quo, we arrive at the Gramscian concept of ‘hegemony’. In respect to this key
concept of ideology, van Dijk (1998) sees ideologies as the ‘worldviews’ that
constitute ‘social cognition’: ‘schematically organized complexes of representa-
tions and attitudes with regard to certain aspects of the social world, e.g. the
schema … whites have about blacks’ (van Dijk 1993: 258).
Furthermore, it is the functioning of ideologies in everyday life that intrigues
CDS researchers. Fairclough has a more Marxist view of ideologies and conceives
them as constructions of practices from particular perspectives:

Ideologies are representations of aspects of the world which contribute to estab-

lishing and maintaining relations of power, domination and exploitation. They
may be enacted in ways of interaction (and therefore in genres) and inculcated
in ways of being identities (and therefore styles). Analysis of texts … is an
important aspect of ideological analysis and critique … (Fairclough 2003: 218)

It is important to distinguish between ideology (or other frequently used terms

such as stance/beliefs/opinions/Weltanschauung/positioning) and discourse
(Purvis and Hunt 1993: 474ff.). Quite rightly, Purvis and Hunt state that these
concepts ‘do not stand alone but are associated not only with other concepts
but with different theoretical traditions’. Thus, ‘ideology’ is usually (more or
less) closely associated with the Marxist tradition, whereas ‘discourse’ has
gained much significance in the linguistic turn in modern social theory ‘by
providing a term with which to grasp the way in which language and other
forms of social semiotics not merely convey social experience but play some
major part in constituting social objects (the subjectivities and their associated
identities), their relations and the field in which they exist’ (Purvis and Hunt
1993: 474). The conflation of ‘ideology’ and ‘discourse’ thus leads, we believe,
to an inflationary use of both concepts. They tend to become empty signifiers
simultaneously indicating texts, positioning and subjectivities as well as belief
systems, structures of knowledge and social practices (see Wodak 2012a).
Discussions about the – various and interdisciplinary – epistemological under-
pinnings of CDS approaches are part and parcel of the chapters presented in this
book (see also Wodak 2012c; Hart and Cap 2014).
Power is another concept that is central for CDS. Typically CDS researchers
are interested in the way discourse (re)produces social domination, that is
mainly understood as power abuse of one group over others, and how domi-
nated groups may discursively resist such abuse (e.g. van Dijk in this volume).
This raises the question of how CDS understands power and what normative
standpoints allow researchers to differentiate between power use and abuse – a
question that has so far remained unanswered (Billig 2008).
Power is one of the most central – and contentious – concepts in the social
sciences. There is almost no social theory that does not contain, suggest or
imply a specific notion of power.

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

Max Weber’s notion of power serves as a common denominator: power as the

chance that an individual in a social relationship can achieve his or her own
will even against the resistance of others (Weber 1980: 28).
Concerning the source of power, at least three different concepts should be
distinguished:

1. Power as a result of specific resources of individual actors (e.g. French and

Raven 1959).
2. Power as a specific attribute of social exchange in each interaction (e.g. Blau
1964; Emerson 1962, 1975), depending on the relation of resources
between different actors.
3. Power as a widely invisible systemic and constitutive characteristic of soci-
ety (e.g., from very different angles, Foucault 1975; Giddens 1984;
Luhmann 1975).

As far as the results of power are concerned (which – according to Max Weber’s
view – are named domination), again three dimensions should be distinguished
(Lukes 1974, 2005):

1. Overt power, typically exhibited in the presence of conflict in decision-

making situations, where power consists in winning, that is prevailing over
another or others.
2. Covert power, consisting in control over what gets decided, by ignoring or
deflecting existing grievances.
3. The power to shape desires and beliefs, thereby precluding both conflict and
grievances.

From these perspectives, discourse is Janus-headed: it is a consequence of power

and domination, but also a technology to exert power.
Michel Foucault, who introduced the conjunction of power and discourse,
focuses on ‘technologies of power’: discipline is a complex bundle of power tech-
nologies developed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Power is
thus exercised with intention – but this is not individual intention. Foucault
focuses on what is accepted knowledge about how to exercise power. One way
of doing this is by threatening somebody or something with violence. However,
when suggesting how happy people would be if they would finally buy spe-
cific consumer products, should also be perceived as an exercise of power;
marketing currently provides us with much knowledge of powerful techniques.
Although Foucault also combines the notions of power and domination in a
Weberian tradition, he focuses primarily on the structural dimension. Thus
domination is not only the overt pressure that one person exercises over others.
Manifold forms of domination might be exercised within society simultane-
ously, by various actors and without subjects being aware of this (Foucault 1975).

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

In modern societies, power and domination are embedded in and conveyed by

discourses. Discourses are not only coherent and rational bodies of speech and
writing, but play an important role as discursive formations in conveying and
implementing power and domination in society (e.g. Hall 1992). Consequently,
discourses and dispositives (see Jäger and Maier in this volume) are core ele-
ments of a ‘microphysics of power’ (e.g. Foucault 1963, 1975, 2004; Sauvêtre
2009) that permeate society like an invisible cobweb.
More recently, Holzscheiter has introduced an instrumental, optimistic and
emancipatory conception of the power–discourse interplay (e.g. Holzscheiter
2005, 2012). She frames discourses as effective social and linguistic practices that
are based on immaterial capabilities. She argues that in the quest for non-­
material power resources, subordinated actors – in her research, NGOs in the
field of international relations – may dispose of discourses to generate power
positions. Conventional power theories are of limited use as, ‘They insufficiently
take into account the role of language – as both a means for communication and
as collectively shared meaning-structures – in the establishment and persistence
of intersubjective power relations’ (Holzscheiter 2005: 723).
A framework capable of integrating most of the diverse concepts of power
mentioned above is provided by Pierre Bourdieu, who offers a multifaceted view
on the language–power-relation (e.g. Bourdieu 1982, 1991). According to
Bourdieu, all social fields are structured by relations of power and domination
(Bourdieu 1977, 1980). Social fields are dynamic systems, characterized by strug-
gles among the actors within this field over the distribution of resources; the
latter account for the attribution of status in the field and – power. Furthermore,
the notion of social field corresponds to a distinct logic of practice, a constellation
of rules, beliefs and practices.
Bourdieu thus takes a resource- and interaction-oriented standpoint: the
resources at stake in social fields are economic, cultural, and social capital
(Bourdieu 1986), they are acquired through heritage or struggle, and social
fields differ in how they assess/rank actors’ equipment of capitals (e.g. Bourdieu
and Passeron 1977). Actors’ capitals are partly institutionalized (property, academic
titles, group memberships) and partly incorporated.
To explain the ‘incorporation’ of capitals, Bourdieu introduces his most
intriguing concept: habitus. It is regarded as a durable but also evolving system
of dispositions which could be potentially activated and should ideally fit to a
particular social field. A particular habitus ensures that an actor acts, perceives
and thinks according to the rules of the field, and his or her movements within
the respective field of career appear as ‘natural’. S/he acts ‘intentionally without
intention’ (Bourdieu 1987; 1990: 12). Actors take part in discourses that follow
the rules of discursive games that are relevant in a social field. They are equipped
with their linguistic habitus, which comprises their linguistic competencies,
based on their capitals. Within this normative framework, there exist certain
degrees of freedom for such actors, allowing them to act strategically and to also
change power relations. In this sense, actors might also apply the emancipatory
function of discourse mentioned above.
Within CDS, power is usually perceived in the Foucauldian sense, and dis-
course is widely regarded as a manifestation of social action which is determined
by social structure and simultaneously reinforces or erodes structure.

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Consequently it is not the individual resources and not the specifics of unique
interactions that are crucial for CDS analyses, but overall structural features in
social fields or in society. Power is central for understanding the dynamics and
specifics of control (of action) in modern societies, but power remains mostly
invisible. The linguistic manifestations, however, are analysed in CDS. The
interdependence between social power and language is a continual and persis-
tent topic not only in CDS (Fairclough 1991; Wodak 1989) but also in
sociology (Bourdieu 1991) and sociolinguistics (e.g. Talbot 2003; Young and
Fitzgerald 2006).
Discursive differences are negotiated in many texts. They are governed by
differences in power that is in part encoded in and determined by discourse and
by genre. Therefore texts are often sites of struggle in that they show traces of
differing discourses and ideologies contending and struggling for dominance.
In sum, defining features of CDS are its concern with power as a central con-
dition in social life, and its efforts to develop a theory of language that
incorporates this phenomenon as a major premise. Not only the notion of
struggles for power and control, but also the intertextuality and recontextualiza-
tion of competing discourses in various public spaces and genres are considered
important (Iedema 1997; Iedema and Wodak 1999; Muntigl et al. 2000; see
Fairclough, Reisigl and Wodak, and van Leeuwen in this volume). Power is
about relations of difference, and particularly about the effects of differences in
social structures. Language is entwined in social power in a number of ways:

•• Language indexes and expresses power.

•• Language is involved where there is contention over and a challenge to power.
•• Power does not necessarily derive from language, but language can be used
to challenge power, to subvert it, to alter distributions of power in the short
and the long term.
•• Language provides a finely articulated vehicle for the expression of differences
in power in hierarchical social structures.

CDS can be defined as fundamentally interested in analysing hidden, opaque,

and visible structures of dominance, discrimination, power and control as
manifested in language. In other words, CDS aim to investigate critically social
inequality as it is expressed, constituted, legitimized, and so on, by language
use (or in discourse). Most critical discourse analysts would thus endorse
Habermas’s claim that ‘language is also a medium of domination and social
force. It serves to legitimize relations of organized power. Insofar as the legiti-
mizations of power relations ... are not articulated … language is also
ideological’ (Habermas 1967: 259).

Research agenda and challenges

In this section, we summarize some important research agendas and chal-
lenges for research which currently characterize CDS. Although we, of course,

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

encounter a vast amount of research and also many methodological and

theoretical approaches and proposals, we have decided to restrict ourselves to
six major areas and related challenges:

•• Analysing, understanding and explaining the impact of neoliberalism and

the knowledge-based economy (KBE) on various domains of our societies;
related to this, the recontextualization of KBE into other parts of the world
and other societies (e.g. Drori et al. 2006).
•• Analysing, understanding and explaining the impact of globalization in
most domains of our lives – as well as the contradictory tendencies of
glocalization and renationalization which can be observed in many parts
of the world. Interestingly, although we are confronted with ever-faster
and all-encompassing communication and related networks 24/7 (Hassan
and Purser 2007), simultaneously, anachronistic nationalistic and even
nativist imaginaries of homogeneous communities are becoming stronger
worldwide.
•• Analysing, understanding and explaining climate change and the many
controversial debates surrounding the production of alternative energy
sources and so forth.
•• Analysing, understanding and explaining the use of digitally mediated com-
munication and its impact on conventional and new modes of
communication which seem to open up new modes of participation and
new public spaces. However, new studies should explore what impact the
new communication networks really have on social and political change in
systematic detail.
•• Integrating approaches from cognitive sciences into CDS; this requires
complex epistemological considerations and the development of new theories,
methodologies and tools.
•• Analysing, understanding and explaining the relationship between complex
historical processes and hegemonic narratives. Identity politics on all levels
always entails the integration of past experiences, present events and visions
of the future in many domains of our lives.

Methodological issues: theory, methods,

analysis, interpretation
CDS view themselves as strongly grounded in theory. Yet we find no dominant
theories but rather eclectic approaches in CDS. To which theories do the dif-
ferent methods refer? Here we detect a huge variety of theories, ranging from
theories on society and power in Michel Foucault’s tradition, theories of
social cognition, and theories of functional grammar as well as individual
concepts that are borrowed from larger theoretical traditions. Initially, this
section aims to systematize these different theoretical influences (see also
Figure 1.4).
A second part in this section is devoted to the operationalization of theoretical
concepts. The primary issue at stake is to understand and challenge how the

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

various approaches to CDS are able to translate their theoretical claims into
instruments and methods of analysis. In particular, the emphasis is on the medi-
ation between Grand Theories as applied to society, and concrete instances of
social interaction that result in texts (to be analysed). With regard to methodol-
ogy, there are several perspectives within CDS: in addition to what can be
described primarily as variations from hermeneutics, we are confronted with
interpretative perspectives with differing emphases, among them even quantitative
procedures (see Mautner in this volume).
Particularly worthy of discussion is the way in which sampling is conducted
and justified in CDS. Most studies analyse ‘typical texts’. What is typical in
which social situation, and for which aspect of a social problem, frequently
remains vague. The possibilities and limitations in respect to the specific units
of analysis will be discussed within the context of theoretical sampling. Some
authors explicitly refer to the ethnographic tradition of field research (e.g.
Reisigl and Wodak in this volume).
The connection between theory and discourse in CDS can be described in
terms of the model for theoretical and methodological research procedures illus-
trated in Figure 1.1. Hereby theory is not only essential to formulate research
questions that guide the data selection, data collection, analysis of data and
interpretation. It should also be grounded in prior interpretations of empirical
analyses. Thus CDS imply a circular and recursive–abductive relationship
between theory and discourse.

Theory

Conceptualization: Selection
Examination of
of theoretical concepts and
assumptions
relations, assumptions

Interpretation Operationalization

Selection of Procedures and

information instruments

Discourse/text

Figure 1.1 Critical discourse studies as a circular process

In CDS, as in all social research, theory, methods and analysis are closely
interrelated, and decisions about the one affect the others. Data, i.e. in the case
of CDS discourses and texts, are never theory-neutral. Which data are collected
and how they are interpreted depends on the theoretical perspective. Theories,
concepts and empirical indicators are systematically related: in theories, we link
concepts, e.g. by functional or casual relationships. To observe and operationalize
these concepts, we use empirical indicators (Gilbert 2008: 22).

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

reference and coverage, history, context of

Application and transfer: interpretations,

discovery, context of application

conclusions, recommendations
variables
research units of units of
question analysis inquiry methods of
inquiry and data
gathering

operationalization
Explanation:
relationship
between units of
analysis analysis and
objectives theory interpretation

Figure 1.2 The research process (adapted from Titscher, Meyer and Mayrhofer
2008: 308)

Figure 1.2 illustrates the typical stages of the research process in empirical
social research. In the context of discovery, we decide about and select research
objectives. These may include the development of theoretical approaches, but
also empirical coverage and the potential application of results. Hereby, we also
decide whether findings and interpretations/explanations are valid only in
respect to the units of analysis or beyond (generalizability).

justifies and
modifies Epistemology KNOWLEDGE
evaluates

Methodology Data and analysis are the basis of

produces

justifies, guides
Method
and evaluates

Figure 1.3 The simple relationship between epistemology, methodology and method
(adapted from Carter and Little 2007: 1317)

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

In both qualitative and quantitative research the process of operationalization is

crucial for the validity, but also for the auditability and the justification of CDS
research. What are the units of analysis (e.g. ingroup/outgroup differentiation, dis-
crimination, social status of speaker), what are the units of inquiry (e.g. group
meetings, interviews, newspapers) and which variables are collected (e.g. indicators
of ingroup/outgroup differentiation, indicators of discrimination, educational sta-
tus of speakers/writers) by means of which methods (content analysis, rhetorical
analysis, surveys, etc.). Finally, data are analysed and results have to be interpreted.
Figure 1.3 shows the simple relation between methodology, epistemology
and method. These three notions are defined in conflicting ways in the litera-
ture. For this volume, we will try to clarify these ambiguities by introducing
simple and precise definitions:

• Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge and justification. It

tries to clarify the antecedents, conditions and boundaries of human
knowledge; it, for instance, answers the question of whether social phe-
nomena are real or just a construct of the observer, and, should these be
real, whether we can observe this social reality adequately.
• Methodology is defined as a (normative) theory of how research should be
conducted to generate knowledge. It tells us how research should proceed;
it deals with the study (description, explanation, justification) of methods,
but does not indicate the methods themselves. For instance, methodology
yields process models such as the one presented in Figure 1.2.
• Methods are techniques for gathering evidence, e.g. for collecting and
selecting data (cases, units of analysis), but also for explaining relationships
(e.g. dependent by independent variables), for conducting interpretations
in a transparent and retroductable way, etc.: ‘Methods can be thought of
as research action’ (Carter and Little 2007: 1317).

As illustrated in Figure 1.3, a specific methodology suggests and justifies specific

methods that produce and analyse data. This analysis is the basis of interpretation
and thus creates knowledge. A specific epistemology – e.g. either constructivist or
realistic – has a modifying impact on methodology, but also justifies and evaluates
knowledge. CDS are typically on the social constructionist side of the street: CDS
conceive discourse as the result of jointly constructed meanings of the world. They
assume that understanding, significance and meaning are developed not sepa-
rately within the individual, but in coordination with other human beings. There
are hegemonic streams, but also divergent and opposing viewpoints. Thus dis-
courses emerge as social constructs, but do have ‘real’ consequences in social
structure (e.g. the discrimination of immigrants).

Theoretical grounding and objectives

Among the approaches presented in this book, scholars use theoretical cornerstones
of very different origins in order to ‘build their CDS-castles’. Neither is there any

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

guiding theoretical viewpoint that is used consistently within CDS, nor do the
CDS protagonists proceed consistently from the area of theory to the field of
discourse and back to theory (see Figure 1.3).
Within the CDS approaches presented here, various theoretical levels of
sociological and sociopsychological theory (the concept of different theoretical
levels draws on the tradition of Merton [1967: 39–72]) can be detected:

•• Epistemology, i.e. theories that provide models of the conditions, contin-

gencies and limits of human perception in general and scientific perception
in particular. Simplified, these theories lie between the poles of realism and
constructivism.
•• General social theories, often called ‘Grand Theories’, conceptualize rela-
tions between social structure and social action and thus link micro- and
macro-sociological phenomena. Within this level we distinguish between
more structuralist and the more individualist approaches. The former pro-
vide rather deterministic top-down explanations (structure → action),
whereas the latter prefer bottom-up explanations (action → structure). Most
modern theories reconcile these positions and imply some kind of circular
relationship between social action and social structure (e.g. Pierre Bourdieu,
Antony Giddens, Niklas Luhmann).
•• Middle-range theories focus either upon specific social phenomena
(e.g. conflict, cognition, social networks) or on specific subsystems of
society (e.g. economy, politics and religion).
•• Microsociological theories try to make sense of and explain social inter­action,
for example the resolution of the double contingency problem (Parsons and
Shils 1951: 3–29) or the reconstruction of everyday procedures which members
of a society use to create their own social order (ethnomethodology).
•• Sociopsychological theories focus on the social conditions of emotion and
cognition, and prefer, compared to microsociology, causal explanations to a
hermeneutic understanding of meaning.
•• Discourse theories aim at the conceptualization of discourse as a social
phenomenon and try to explain its genesis and its structure.
•• Linguistic theories, e.g. theories of semantics, pragmatics, of grammar or of
rhetoric, describe and explain the patterns specific to language systems and
verbal communication.

As all these theoretical levels can be found in CDS, it seems that the unifying
parameters of CDS are rather the specifics of research questions (critique) than the
theoretical positioning. In the following we present a short outline of the theo-
retical positions and methodological objectives of the CDS approaches presented
in the volume.

Major approaches to CDS

The differences between CDS and other discourse analysis (DA), pragmatic and
sociolinguistic approaches may be most clearly established in respect to the
general principles of CDS. Firstly, the nature of the problems with which CDS
are concerned is significantly different from all those approaches that do not

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

explicitly express their research interest in advance. In general, critical discourse

studies ask different research questions, and some CDS scholars play an advoca-
tory role for socially discriminated groups. When viewing the CDS contributions
assembled in this volume it also becomes evident that sometimes the distinc-
tions between social scientific research, which ought to be intelligible and
retroductable, and political argumentation become blurred.
Specifically, we distinguish between approaches that proceed deductively and
those that choose a more inductive perspective. Linked to this distinction is the
choice of objects under investigation: more deductively oriented theories that also
propose a closed theoretical framework are more likely to illustrate their
assumptions with a few examples that seem to best fit their claims (e.g. the
dialectical-­relational approach and sociocognitive approach in this volume). More
inductively oriented approaches usually remain at the ‘meso-level’ and select prob-
lems they are ‘curious’ about and where they attempt to discover new insights
through in-depth case studies and ample data collection (for example the discourse-
historical approach, social actors approach, corpus linguistics approach, dispositive
analysis in this volume). Of course, all approaches proceed abductively, i.e. oscillate
between theory and data analysis in retroductive ways. However, on a continuum,
we are able to distinguish obvious priorities in choosing entry points and themes.

Overall research Main theoretical

strategy attractor

Discourse-Historical
Inductive, detailed

Approach (Ruth Wodak and M. Foucault

case studies

Martin Reisigl)
Critical
Social Actors Approach Theory
(Theo van Leeuwen)

Dispositive Analysis K. Marx

(Siegfried Jäger and
Florentine Maier)
S. Moscovici
Deductive, general

Sociocognitive Approach
perspective

(Teun van Dijk)

Symbolic
Interactionism
Dialectical Relational
Approach
(Norman Fairclough)
M.K. Halliday

Figure 1.4 Overall research strategies and theoretical background

Figure 1.4 does not cover all the approaches presented in this volume, as the
chapters presented by Mautner on corpus linguistics, KhosraviNik and Unger on
social media and by Jancsary, Höllerer and Meyer on multimodal texts offer
methodologies and methods for analysing specific data sets without relying
strongly on specific theoretical attractors.

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

It has been criticized with good reason that each systematization of differ-
ent approaches necessarily neglects the interconnectedness of particular
approaches (Hart and Cap 2014, in their introduction). CDS emerged as a
mixture of social and linguistic theories, and Halliday’s systemic functional
grammar was very influential. Hart and Cap (2014) further rightly state that
different approaches to CDS rely on various linguistic theories: Halliday’s sys-
temic functional grammar (Halliday 1985), pragmatics, cognitive linguistics,
corpus linguistics – and also rather generic theories such as post-structuralism
and cognitive psychology. To cut a long story short: mapping different
approaches to CDS has become more complex, as different authors use theo-
retical entry-points in a rather eclectic way depending on their specific
interests and research questions.
Related to the choice of more ‘macro-’or ‘meso-topics’ (such as ‘globalization’
or ‘knowledge’ versus ‘un/employment’ or ‘right-wing populism’), we encoun-
ter differences in the evaluation of the chosen topics and objects under
investigation. Macro-topics are relatively uncontroversial in the respective
national or international academic contexts; some meso-topics, however, touch
the core of the respective national community to which the researcher belongs.
For example, research on concrete antisemitic, xenophobic and racist occur-
rences is much more controversial in certain academic and national contexts
and is sometimes regarded as ‘unpatriotic’, or hostile. This explains the serious
problems which some critical scholars have encountered when venturing into
such sensitive fields (Heer et al. 2008).
In any case, it remains a fact that critical discourse studies follow a different
and critical approach to problems, since CDS endeavours to make power rela-
tions explicit that are frequently obfuscated and hidden, and to derive results
which are also of practical relevance.
Furthermore, one important assumption characterizes some CDS approaches
that all discourses are historical and can therefore only be understood with refer-
ence to their context. Hence, the notion of context is crucial for CDS, since this
explicitly includes sociopsychological, political, historical and ideological factors
and thereby postulates an interdisciplinary procedure.
Interdisciplinarity is implemented in many different ways in the CDS
approaches in this volume: in some cases, interdisciplinarity is characteristic of
the theoretical framework (dispositive approach, dialectical-relational approach,
sociocognitive approach); in other cases, interdisciplinarity also applies to
team research and to the collection and analysis of data (social actors approach,
discourse-historical approach). Moreover, CDS approaches use the concepts of
intertextuality and interdiscursivity and analyse the intricate and complex
relationships with other texts; in sum, it may be concluded that critical dis-
course studies are open to a broad range of factors exerting an influence on
meaning-making.
CDS and other DA approaches also differ in respect to constitutive
assumptions about the relationship between language and society. CDS do not
believe this relationship to be simply deterministic but invoke the concept
of mediation. The dialectical-relational approach draws on Halliday’s multi-
functional linguistic theory (Halliday 1985) and the concept of orders of discourse
according to Foucault, while the discourse-historical approach and the

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

sociocognitive approach make use of theories of social cognition (e.g.

Moscovici 2000). Reflection on the mediation between language and social
structure is absent from many other linguistic approaches, for example from
conversation analysis. This is somewhat related to the level of social aggrega-
tion: although CDS approaches focus on social phenomena such as
ideology or power, scholars select different units of analysis: the way in which
individuals (or groups) mentally (cognitively), perceive, or the way social struc-
tures determine, discourse (see Figure 1.5). In other words: we distinguish
between more cognitive–sociopsychological and more macro-sociological–
structural approaches – although admittedly this is a rough distinction.
Moreover, most researchers integrate linguistic categories into their analyses –
but to a different extent and with a different focus and intensity. Critical
discourse studies do not necessarily include a broad range of linguistic catego-
ries in each single analysis; one might get the impression that only few
linguistic devices are relevant. For instance, many CDS scholars consistently use
social actor analysis by means of focusing upon pronouns, attributes and the
verbal mode, time and tense; Hallidayan transitivity analysis and the analysis of
topoi are employed frequently by social scientists because these concepts – quite
wrongly – seem to be easy to apply without much linguistic background
knowledge. Exceptions always prove the point: Reisigl and Wodak (this vol-
ume) and van Dijk (this volume) illustrate how a broad range of macro- and
micro-linguistic, pragmatic and argumentative features can be operationalized
and integrated in the analysis of texts (Figure 1.5).

agency

Social Actors
Approach (Theo
van Leeuwen)
Sociocognitive
Approach
(Teun van Dijk)
operationalization

operationalization
detailed linguistic
broad linguistic

Dispositive Analysis
(Siegfried Jäger and
Florentine Maier)

Discourse-Historical
Approach (Ruth Wodak
and Martin Reisigl)

Dialectical Relational
Approach
(Norman Fairclough)

structure

Figure 1.5 Linguistic involvement and level of aggregation

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 CDS: HISTORY, AGENDA, THEORY, METHODOLOGY

CDS generally perceive their procedure as a hermeneutic process, although this

is not always evident in the positioning of every author. As an opponent to
(causal) explanations of the natural sciences, hermeneutics can be understood
as the method of understanding and producing meaning relations. The herme-
neutic circle – i.e. the meaning of one part can only be understood in the context
of the whole, but this in turn is only accessible from its component parts – indi-
cates the problem of intelligibility of a hermeneutic interpretation. Therefore a
hermeneutic interpretation specifically requires detailed documentation.
Indeed, the details of the hermeneutic interpretation procedure are not always
made transparent by many CDS-orientated studies.3 If a crude distinction were
to be made between ‘text-extending’ and ‘text-reducing’ methods of analysis, then
CDS, on account of their focus on distinct formal properties and the associated
compression of texts during analysis, might be characterized as ‘text-reducing’.

Data collection
We concluded above that CDS does not constitute a well-defined empirical
method but rather a bulk of approaches with theoretical similarities and
research questions of a specific kind. But there is no CDS-way of collecting data,
either. Some authors do not even mention data sampling methods, other schol-
ars strongly rely on traditions based outside the sociolinguistic field.4 In any
case, similar to Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss 1967), data collection is
not considered to be a specific phase that must be completed before the analysis
can be conducted: after the first data collection one should perform first pilot
analyses, find indicators for particular concepts, expand concepts into catego-
ries and, on the basis of these first results, collect further data (theoretical
sampling). In this procedure, data collection is never completely concluded nor
excluded, and new questions may always arise that require new data or re-
examination of earlier data (Strauss 1987; Strauss and Corbin 1990).
Most CDS approaches do not explicitly explain or recommend data sampling
procedures. Obviously corpus linguistics specifically refers to large corpora of
texts. Other approaches introduced in this volume rely on existing texts, such
as mass media communication or organizational documents. Beyond this, some
of them – especially the DHA – additionally propose incorporating fieldwork
and ethnography, if possible, in order to explore the object under investigation
as a precondition for any further analysis and theorizing. Focusing on existing
texts, however, does imply specific strengths (e.g. providing non-reactive data,
see Webb et al. 1966) but also limitations in respect to necessary context knowl-
edge and information about conditions of text production and reception.

Summary
The aims of this chapter were to provide a summary of CDS approaches and
to discuss their similarities and differences. CDS are characterized by their

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 METHODS OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE STUDIES

diversity and their continuous development and elaboration. Therefore, this

chapter does not claim to provide a complete overview of CDS; we obviously
focus on the approaches assembled in this volume. Nevertheless, a few general
points can be made within this diversity:

• Concerning the theoretical background, CDS work eclectically in many

aspects. The entire range from Grand Theories to micro-linguistic theories
are touched upon, although each single approach emphasizes different
levels.
• There is no accepted canon of data sampling procedures; indeed many
CDS approaches work with existing data, i.e. texts not specifically produced
for the respective research projects.
• Operationalization and analysis are problem-oriented and imply linguistic
expertise.

The most evident similarity is a shared interest in social processes of power,

inclusion, exclusion and subordination. In the tradition of Critical Theory, CDS
aims to shed light on the discursive aspects of societal disparities and inequali-
ties. Critical discourse studies frequently explore the linguistic means used by
the elites to reinforce and intensify inequalities in society. This entails careful
and systematic analysis, self-reflection at every point of one’s research, and dis-
tance from the data which are being investigated. Description, interpretation and
explanation should be kept apart, thus enabling transparency and retroductability
of the respective analysis. Of course, not all of these recommendations are con-
sistently followed, and they cannot always be implemented in detail because of
time pressures and similar structural constraints.
Therefore some critics will continue to state that CDS constantly sits on the
fence between social research and political activism (Widdowson 2004a; Wodak
2006a); others accuse some CDS research of being too linguistic or not linguistic
enough. In our view, such criticism keeps a field alive because it necessarily
triggers more self-reflection and encourages new responses and innovative ideas.

Notes
1 See Fairclough 1991; van Dijk 1984; Wodak 1989.
2 The Erasmus network consisted of cooperation between Siegfried Jäger, Duisburg; Per
Linell, Linkoeping; Norman Fairclough, Lancaster; Teun van Dijk, Amsterdam;
Gunther Kress, London; Theo van Leeuwen, London; Ruth Wodak, Vienna.
3 The question whether it is possible to make hermeneutic processes transparent and
intelligible at all remains undecided, although some authors (Oevermann et al. 1979)
developed a hermeneutically oriented method with well-defined procedures and rules.
4 A general overview on sampling and the problem of text selection is provided by
Titscher et al. (2000).

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