SET THEORY

A Project Report

By
YUDHISTIR BADAIK
(S03921MTH024)
Under the guidance of

SANJUKTA BEHERA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MUNICIPAL COLLEGE, ROURKELA ODISHA
ROURKELA - 769012
 APPROVAL OF THE VIVA-VOCE BOARD

Certified that the Project report entitled SET THEORY submitted by to the Municipal
College, Rourkela for the award of the degree Bachelor of Science has been
Yudhistir Badaik accepted by the Internal Examiner and the student has successfully
defended the Project report in the viva-voce examination.

(Supervisor)

(Internal Examiner 1) (Internal Examiner 2)

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled SET Theory submitted by YUDHISTIR
BADAIK (Roll No.-S03921MTH024) to Department of Mathematics, Municipal
college , Rourkela towards the requirement of the course, is a record of bonafide
research work under my supervision and I consider it worthy of consideration for
the award of the degree of Bachelor of science of the Institute.

Mrs. Sanjukta Behera

(Project supervisor)

Municipal college

Rourkela – 769012
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Doing this project work is one of the most wonderful experiences for me. It is not
only about writing a report and presenting it but also about learning, discussing and
accepting suggestions to improve foremost. I would like to express my sincere
gratitude and respect to my project supervisor Mrs. Sanjukta Behera for her
guidance , inspiration and continuous encouragement he has been the guiding
spirit of this project and I thank him from the bottom of my heart for being a
wonderful advisor . I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the faculty
members for their moral cooperation.

(Mrs. Sanjukta Behera)

CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY

1.1 - The Origin

1.2 - Basic Definition
1.3 - Notation and Terminology
1.4 – Types of set and properties

CHAPTER 2 – OPERATIONS ON SETS

2.1- Union and Intersection

2.2– Set Difference
2.3– The Laws of Demorgan
2.4– Symmetric Difference

CHAPTER 3 – RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

3.1 – Cartesian product

3.2 – Binary Relations
3.3 – Equivalence Relations
3.4 – Function and Function Composition

CHAPTER 4 – APPLICATION OF SET

4.1 – Real Life applications

4.2 – Uses of Set in various fields

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter -1 INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY

SET THEORY:
Set Theory is a branch of mathematical logic where we learn sets and their
properties. A set is a collection of objects or groups of objects. These objects are
often called elements or members of a set.

THE ORIGINS:
Georg Cantor (1845-1918), a German mathematician, initiated the concept ‘Theory
of sets’ or ‘Set Theory’. While working on “Problems on Trigonometric Series”, he
encountered sets that have become one of the most fundamental concepts in
mathematics.

According to Cantor, two sets AA and BB have the same size, or cardinality,
if they are bijectable, i.e., the elements of AA can be put in a one-to-one
correspondence with the elements of BB. Thus, the set NN of natural numbers and
the set RR of real numbers have different cardinalities. In 1878 Cantor formulated
the famous Continuum Hypothesis (CH), which asserts that every infinite set of real
numbers is either countable, i.e., it has the same cardinality as NN, or has the same
cardinality as RR. In other words, there are only two possible sizes of infinite sets of
real numbers. The CH is the most famous problem of set theory. Cantor himself
devoted much effort to it, and so did many other leading mathematicians of the
first half of the twentieth century. Without understanding sets, it will be difficult to
explain the other concepts such as relations, functions, sequences, probability,
geometry, etc.

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DEFINATION OF SET:
Set is a well-defined collection of objects or people. Sets can be related to many
real-life examples, such as the number of rivers in India, number of colours in a
rainbow, etc.

EXAMPLE:
To understand sets, consider a practical scenario. While going to school from home,
Nivy decided to note down the names of restaurants which come in between. The
list of the restaurants, in the order they came, was:

List 1: RA RB RC RD RE

The above-mentioned list is a collection of objects. Also, it is well-defined. By well-

defined, it is meant that anyone should be able to tell whether the object belongs
to the particular collection or not. E. g. a stationary shop can’t come in the category
of the restaurants. If the collection of objects is well-defined, it is known as a set.

The objects in a set are referred to as elements of the set. A set can have finite or
infinite elements. While coming back from the school, Nivy wanted to confirm the
list what she had made earlier. This time again, she wrote the list in the order in
which restaurants came. The new list was:

List 2: RE RD RC RB RA

Now, this is a different list. But is a different set? The answer is no. The order of
elements has no significance in sets so it is still the same set.

REPRESENTATION OF SET:
Sets can be represented in two ways:

1. Roster Form or Tabular form

2. Set Builder Form

2
1-ROSTER FORM OR TABULAR FORM:
In roster form, all the elements of the set are listed, separated by commas and
enclosed between curly braces { }.

Example: If set represents all the leap years between the year 1995 and 2015,
then it would be described using Roster form as:

A = {1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012}

Now, the elements inside the braces are written in ascending order. This could be
descending order or any random order. As discussed before, the order doesn’t
matter for a set represented in the Roster Form.

Also, multiplicity is ignored while representing the sets. E.g. If L represents a set
that contains all the letters in the word ADDRESS, the proper Roster form
representation would be

L ={A,D,R,E,S }= {S,E,D,A,R}

L≠ {A, D, D, R, E, S, S}

2-SET BUILDER FORM:

In set builder form, all the elements have a common property. This property is not
applicable to the objects that do not belong to the set.

Example: If set S has all the elements which are even prime numbers, it is
represented as:

S={x: x is an even prime number}

Where ‘x’ is a symbolic representation that is used to describe the element.

‘:’ means ‘such that’

‘{}’ means ‘the set of all’

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So, S = {x: x is an even prime number} is read as ‘the set of all x such that x is an
even prime number’. The roster form for this set S would be S = 2. This set
contains only one element. Such sets are called singleton/unit sets.

Another Example:

F = {p: p is a set of two-digit perfect square numbers}

How?

F = {16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}

We can see, in the above example, 16 is a square of 4, 25 is square of 5, 36 is

square of 6, 49 is square of 7, 64 is square of 8 and 81 is a square of 9}.

Even though, 4, 9, 121, etc., are also perfect squares, but they are not elements of
the set F, because the it is limited to only two-digit perfect square.

NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY:

There are several symbols that are adopted for common sets.

Table 1: Symbols denoting common sets

Symbol Corresponding Set

Represents the set of all Natural numbers i.e. all the positive integers.
N This can also be represented by Z+.

Examples: 9, 13, 906, 607, etc.

Represents the set of all integers
Z
The symbol is derived from the German word Zahl, which means
number.

4
 Positive and negative integers are denoted by Z+ and Z– respectively.

Examples: -12, 0, 23045, etc.

Represents the set of Rational numbers

The symbol is derived from the word Quotient. It is defined as the

quotient of two integers (with non-zero denominator)
Q
Positive and negative rational numbers are denoted by Q+ and
Q– respectively.

Examples: 13/9. -6/7, 14/3, etc.

Represents the Real numbers i.e. all the numbers located on the number
line.
R
Positive and negative real numbers are denoted by R+ and
R– respectively.

Examples: 4.3, π, 4√ 3, etc.

Represents the set of Complex numbers.
C
Examples: 4 + 3i, i, etc.

5
OTHER NOTATIONS:

Symbol Symbol Name

{} set

A∪B A union B

A∩B A intersection B

A⊆B A is subset of B

A⊄B A is not subset B

A⊂B proper subset / strict subset

A⊃B proper superset / strict superset

A⊇B superset

A⊅B not superset

Ø empty set

P (C) power set

A=B Equal set

Ac Complement of A

a∈B an element of B

x∉A x not element of A

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TYPES OF SETS:
The sets are further categorised into different types, based on elements or types
of elements. These different types of sets in basic set theory are:

 Finite set: The number of elements is finite

 Infinite set: The number of elements are infinite

 Empty set: It has no elements

 Singleton set: It has one only element

 Equal set: Two sets are equal if they have same elements

 Equivalent set: Two sets are equivalent if they have same number of

elements

 Power set: A set of every possible subset.

 Universal set: Any set that contains all the sets under consideration.

 Subset: When all the elements of set A belong to set B, then A is subset of B

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LAWS AND PROPERTIES OF SET:
There are a number of set identities that the set operations of union, intersection,
and set difference satisfy. They are very useful in calculations with sets.
Let U is a universal set and A, B, and C are subsets of U.Then,

Commutative Laws: A∪B=B∪A A∩B=B∩A

Associative Laws: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Distributive Laws: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Idempotent Laws: A∪A=A A∩A=A

Absorption Laws: A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A

Identity Laws: A∪∅=A A∩U=A

Universal Bound Laws: A∪U=U A∩∅=∅

DE Morgan’s Laws: (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc

Complement Laws: A ∪ Ac = U A ∩ Ac = ∅

Complements of U and ∅ : Uc=∅ ∅c = U

Double Complement Law: (Ac)c = A

Set Difference Law: A − B = A ∩ Bc

Each of these laws asserts that the set on the right-hand side is equal to the set
on the left-hand.

8
Chapter – 2 OPERATIONS ON SET

UNION OF SETS (OR):

• This represents all of the elements that are in one set OR the other set OR in
the overlap between the sets.
• It is often indicated using the word "or".
• The symbol for union is ∪.

A∪B represents elements in set A OR set B OR in the overlap.

INTERSECTION OF SETS (AND):

• This represents all of the elements that are in the overlap between the sets.
• It is often indicated using the word "and".
• The symbol for intersection is ∩.

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A∩B represents the elements in the overlap between Sets A and B. That is, it
represents elements included in both Set A and Set B.

THE MINUS OF SETS (NOT):

• This represents all of the elements that are in one set but not the other.
• It is often indicated using the word "not".
• The symbol for minus is \.

A\B represents the elements in the Set A but NOT in Set B.

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 COMPLEMENT OF A SET:
• This includes any element that is NOT in the set.
• The complement of set A can be written in two ways: A' or not A

COMPLEMENT OF A UNION OF SETS:

• This includes any element outside the union of sets. Recall that a union of sets
refers to elements in either of the sets OR elements in the overlap of sets.
• Recall that the unions of sets A and B is written as A∪B. The complement of the
union of sets A and B can be written in two ways: (A ∪ B)' and not (A union B).

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COMPLEMENT OF AN INTERSECTION OF SETS:
• This includes any element outside the intersection of sets. Recall that an
intersection of sets refers to elements in the overlap of sets.
• Recall that the intersection of sets A and B is written as A ∩ B. The
complement of the intersection of sets A and B can be written in two ways:
(A ∩ B)' and not (A intersect B).

12
De Morgan's Law:
De Morgan's laws are a pair of transformation rules in Boolean algebra and set
theory that is used to relate the intersection and union of sets through
complements. There are two conditions that are specified under Demorgan's law.
These conditions are primarily used to reduce expressions into a simpler form. This
increases the ease of performing calculations and solving complex Boolean
expressions.

According to De Morgan's Laws:

 The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their
individual complements.
 Additionally, the complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the
union of their individual complements.

These laws can easily be visualized using Venn diagrams. In this article, we will learn
about the statements of Demorgan's law, the proof of these statements, their
applications, and examples.

Demorgan's laws are a set of two postulates that are widely used in set theory.
They state that: (i) (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’ and (ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’.

1. A union B Complement (First De Morgan's Law)

2. A Intersection B Complement (Second De Morgan's Law)

When we have a collection of well-defined distinct objects that form a group, this
collection is known as set. When we want to simplify set operations such as taking
the complement, union, and intersection of sets, we use De Morgan's laws.

De Morgan's Law Statement:

Demorgan's law can be used in Boolean algebra as well as in set theory to simplify
mathematical expressions. Suppose we have two sets A and B that are subsets of
the universal set U. A' is the complement of A and B' is the complement of B. '∩' is

13
the symbol for intersection and '∪' is used to denote the union. Then the De
Morgan's laws are given below.

De Morgan's Law of Union:

The complement of the union of the two sets A and B will be equal to the
intersection of A' (complement of A) and B' (complement of B). This is also known
as De Morgan's Law of Union. It can be represented as (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’. We can
also generalize this law. Suppose we have n sets given by {A1,A2,...,AnA1,A2,...,An}
then formula is given by (⋃ni=1Ai)′=⋂ni=1A′i(⋃i=1nAi)′=⋂i=1nAi′.

14
DE MORGAN'S LAW OF INTERSECTION:
The complement of the intersection of A and B will be equal to the union of A'
and B'. This condition is called De Morgan's law of Intersection. It can be given by
(A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’. Similarly, as above this law can be generalized by the formula
(⋂ni=1Ai)′=⋃ni=1A′i(⋂i=1nAi)′=⋃i=1nAi′.

15
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SETS:
The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong
to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as “A minus B”.

The representation of A – B using a Venn diagram is given below.

Similarly, we can find B – A, the difference of the sets B and A in this order is the
set of elements which belong to B but not to A. Symbolically, we write B – A and
read as “B minus A”. And a Venn diagram for B – A as:

16
SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO SETS:
The set which contains the elements which are either in set A or in set B but not in
both is called the symmetric difference between two given sets. It is represented by
A ⊝ B and is read as a symmetric difference of set A and B.

17
Chapter – 3 RELATION AND FUNCTION

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS:

Relations and functions are the set operations that help to trace the relationship
between the elements of two or more distinct sets or between the elements of the
same set. But, before we move on to further explore the topic it is important to get
the idea about the Cartesian product and Venn diagrams.

Cartesian product:
If p ∈ P and q ∈ Q then the set of all ordered pair i. e., (p,q) is called the Cartesian
product of P×Q. This means every first element of the ordered pair belongs to the
set P and every second element belongs to the set Q.

o P and Q must be non-empty sets.

o P × Q is null if either P or Q is a null set.

Example: X = {1, 3} and Y = {4, 7} then, X × Y = {(1, 4), (1, 7), (3, 4), (3, 7)}.

For above example, the number elements in X, n(X) = 2 (this no. is called the
cardinal number) and number elements in Y, n(Y) = 2 consequently, number of
ordered pairs in the Cartesian product n(X × Y) = 4. The same rule holds for any
Cartesian product.

Venn-Diagrams

Euler – Venn Diagrams make it easy to operate on sets.

18
Two intersecting Sets

In the above example we consider:

 The quadrilateral is a finite universal set which represents a set of ideas.

 Among those ideas we have two subsets which are finite as well:
 Set of Ideas that are the truth, let’s denote them as T and
 Set of Ideas that are the beliefs, let’s denote them as B.
 Their intersection set, knowledge is denoted as K.

o Here, T ∪ B is the union of these two sets which is the set of ideas that are
either T or B or both.
o T ∩ B is the intersection of the two sets which is the set of ideas that are both
T and B i. e., K as already mentioned.
o Now, to find no. of elements in T ∪ B we have, n(T ∪ B) = n(T) + n(B) – n(T ∩
B).

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS:

The relation is the subset of the Cartesian product which contains only some of the
ordered pair based on the relationships defined between the first and second
elements. The relation is usually denoted by R.

19
If every element of a set A is related with one and only one element of another set
then this kind of relation qualifies as a function. A function is a special case of
relation where no two ordered pairs can have the same first element.

This notation f: X→Y denotes that f is a function from X to Y. For x∈X there is unique
y∈Y and his y is represented as y = f(x) which means value of f at x which in turn is
the value of y at a specific value of x.

We can represent a function in three ways namely: Algebraic form, Tabular form,
and Graphical form.

DOMAIN AND RANGE:

o The domain is the set of all first elements of R.
o The range is the set of all second elements of R.

Total no. of relations for n(A×B) are 2n(A)×n(B)

Types of Functions

Based on the kind of element that the sets involved consists of functions can be:

 Identity function: y=f(x)=x; both range and domain of the function is the
same.
 Constant function: y=f(x)=Constant; the range of the function is constant
 Polynomial function: y=f(x)=polynomial for every value of x.
 Rational function: these are y=f(x)=g(x)/h(x) type of function where both g(x)
and h(x) are polynomials and h(x)≠0.
 Modulus function: The range of the function is positive plus the set of 0
 Signum function: Range of f is {-1, 0, 1}
 Greatest Integer function: The function assumes the value of the greatest
integer. The range is a pure integer value.

20
Based on the kind of relationship that the elements of the two sets have with each
other there are mainly four types of functions:

 One to one function (Injective): For each element in the domain there is one
and only one element in the range.
 Many to one function: When two or more elements from the domain are
mapped to the same single elements in the range.
 Onto function (Subjective): When every element of the range has been
mapped to an element in the domain.
 One-one and onto function (Objective): A function which is both one to one
and onto function.

BINARY RELATIONS:

Definition:

A binary relation between two sets X and Y (or between the elements of X and Y)
is a subset of X × Y — i.e., is a set of ordered pairs (x,y) ∈ X × Y .

If R is a relation between X and Y (i.e., if R ⊆ X ×Y ), we often write xRy instead of

(x,y) ∈ R. We write Rc for the complement of R — i.e., xRcy if and only if (x,y) ∈/ R. If
X and Y are the same set, so that the relation R is a subset of X × X, we say that R is
a relation on X.

21
Example 1:
X is a set of students, say X = {Ann,Bev,Carl,Doug}.

Y is a set of courses, say Y = {History, Math,Economics}.

Then X × Y has 12 elements. An example of a relation R ⊆ X × Y is the set of pairs

(x,y) for which “x is enrolled in y.” Another example is the relation Re defined by
“xRye if x received an A grade in y”. In this example we would likely have Re ⊆ R, i.e.,
xRye ⇒ xRy.

The following example defines two important relations associated with any function
f: X → Y.

EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS:
Equivalence Relation is a type of relation that satisfies three fundamental
properties: reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. These properties ensure that it
defines a partition on a set, where elements are grouped into equivalence classes
based on their similarity or equality. Equivalence relations are essential in various
mathematical and theoretical contexts, including algebra, set theory, and graph
theory, as they provide a structured way to compare and classify elements within
a set.

In this article, we will learn about the key properties of equivalence relations, how
to identify any relation to be an equivalence relation, and their practical
applications in fields such as abstract algebra, discrete mathematics, and data
analysis. We’ll explore examples and exercises to deepen our understanding of
Equivalence Relation.

An equivalence relation on a set is a binary relation that

satisfies three fundamental properties:

 Reflexivity: ∀ a ∈ S: a ~ a

 Symmetry: ∀ a, b ∈ S: a ~ b ⇒ b ~ a

 Transitivity: ∀ a, b, c ∈ S: (a ~ b) ∧ (b ~ c) ⇒ a ~ c

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REFLEXIVE RELATION:

A relation R on a set A is called reflexive relation if (a, a) ∈ R ∀ a ∈ A, i.e. aRa for all
a ∈ A, where R is a subset of (A ✕ A), i.e. the cartesian product of set A with itself.

This means if element “a” is present in set A, then a relation “a” to “a” (aRa) should
be present in relation R. If any such aRa is not present in R then R is not a reflexive
relation.

SYMMETRIC RELATION:

A relation R on a set A is called symmetric relation if and only if ∀ a, b ∈ A, if (a, b)

∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R and vice versa i.e., where R is a subset of (A x A), i.e. the Cartesian
product of set A with itself.

This means if an ordered pair of elements “a” to “b” (aRb) is present in relation R,
then an ordered pair of elements “b” to “a” (bRa) should also be present in relation
R. If any such bRa is not present for any aRb in R then R is not a symmetric relation.

TRANSITIVE RELATION:

A relation R on a set A is called transitive relation if and only if ∀ a, b, c ∈ A, if (a,

b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R, where R is a subset of (A x A), i.e. the cartesian
product of set A with itself.

This means if an ordered pair of elements “a” to “b” (aRb) and “b” to “c” (bRc) is
present in relation R, then an ordered pair of elements “a” to “c” (aRC) should also
be present in the relation R. If any such aRc is not present for any aRb & bRc in R
then R is not a transitive relation.

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EXAMPLE OF EQUIVALENCE RELATION:
A classic example of an equivalence relation is the relation of “equality” on the set
of real numbers. Given any two real numbers “a” and “b”:

 Reflexivity: “a = a” is always true for any real number “a.”

 Symmetry: If “a = b,” then “b = a.”

 Transitivity: If “a = b” and “b = c,” then “a = c.”

Some other examples include:

 Congruence (in modular arithmetic)

 Congruence of Geometric Shapes

 Equivalence of Parallel Lines

PROPERTIES OF EQUIVALENCE RELATION:

 Equivalence relations are often denoted by the symbol “≡” or by writing “∼”
between related elements.

 An example of an equivalence relation is the “congruence modulo n” relation

in modular arithmetic, where two integers are related if their difference is a
multiple of n. This relation is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

 Equivalence relations are widely used in mathematics, computer science, and

other fields for classifying objects, defining partitions, and simplifying
complex problems.

24
Chapter – 4 APPLICATION OF SET

APPLICATIONS:
Set theory has applications across a variety of disciplines. Set theory has various
uses in different areas of mathematics, such as discrete structure, data structure,
etc., due to its broad scope or abstract character. A knowledge of limit points and
what is meant by continuity of a function are founded on set theory in the field of
mathematics known as analysis, of which differential and integral calculus are
major components. The algebraic interpretation of set operations results in
Boolean algebra, where the logical operations "and," "or," and "not" are regarded
as equivalent to the operations of intersection, union, and difference, respectively.
The design of digital electrical circuitry, such as that found in calculators and
personal computers, heavily relies on Boolean algebra. Topology, the study of sets
and the characteristics of distinct collections of subsets, is built on the principles of
set theory.

REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS:

It's fascinating to learn that even if you are not a mathematician and you read about
set theory, you can easily comprehend not just its applications but also the notion
or concept that led to the development of set theory by using examples from
everyday life. Set theory gets off to a fairly straightforward start; it merely considers
whether an object belongs to or does not belong to a set of objects that have been
specified in a clear-cut manner.

25
In the kitchen, utensils are arranged so that plates are kept separate from spoons.
This brings us back to real-world instances of sets. Another illustration is the
separation of smart phones like the Galaxy Duos, Lumia, etc. from basic mobiles
when we visit mobile dealerships. In our daily lives, there are therefore countless
examples of sets.

IN BOOLEAN ALGEBRA:

After the development of soft set by Molodtsov in 1999, a number of generic

application of same were introduced throughout the world, in the field of
academics, research, management and even in scientific domains. Provided with
the facility to deal with the uncertainty of data it became applicable for Boolean
matrices as well. as Boolean is a algebraic structure and input data has a number of
certainties in the same hence soft set have solved the problems in relation to the
same. Apart from this the basic operation of set theory i.e. intersection, union and
even difference of set are being used in the same with high level of priority like the
logical operation of ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’, etc.

TOPOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS:

Collection of subsets and application of the same in defining topology has always
remained a benchmark application of set theory, apart from the digital electronic
circuitry and related variation sets are being used in extensive manner. Here the
components are designed on the basis of subsets and even collection of the same.

26
IMPORTANCE IN COMPUTING:

These days, even computer scientists use the language of set theory to explain their
fundamental ideas. This is advantageous because, when you theoretically identify
an object set, there is no doubt as to what you are referring to, and you can clearly
respond to any inquiries you may have. It is exceedingly impossible to undertake
any serious mathematics without exact definitions. Set theory is regarded as the
starting point from which almost all mathematics may be deduced. Examples of
abstract algebraic structures that are closed under one or more operations include
groups, fields, and rings.

Cantor’s diagnostics proof that every set has more subsets than it has elements is
the central idea underlying the work of Godel, Turing, and others in showing that
certain problems are not algorithmically solvable (recursion theory), and similarly
in computational complexity theory.
Apart from the above given specific applications of set
theory, this phenomenon is used in many of the other related fields as well, like the
field of engineering, business, medical/health sciences and even in natural sciences.
As far as the business operations are concerned, the application of the same exist
in almost all the domains i.e. decision making on the basis of intersecting and non-
intersecting sets of different decision variables. Then in the field of inventory
management i.e. variation of holding/carrying cost, EOQ variations, logistics, etc.

Another intriguing framework for much of mathematics is set theory. It has been
asserted that the majority, if not all, of mathematics' theorems may be derived
using a carefully crafted set of set theory axioms, supplemented with several
definitions, utilising first or second order logic, since the publication of the first
book of Principia Mathematica. For instance, set theory can be used to deduce the
properties of natural and real numbers since each number system can be
associated with a set of equivalence classes under the right equivalence relation,
whose field is an infinite set.

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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SET THEORY:

Set theories have application in areas outside of only mathematics, such as data
structures, topology, and so forth. Our innate capacity for abstraction is the obvious
significance. The House of Representatives, the army, the Rotary club, the Solar
system, and many other groups of objects are frequently referred to collectively as
"the Detroit Lions."

That is, we categorise things, people, and ideas based on shared characteristics to
make it simpler to talk about things "in general" rather than having to keep bringing
up specific examples. To say "this implies that," however, is to say that the set of
the things for which "this" is true is smaller (or contained in) the set of the things
for which "that" is true. This is the other significant relevance, which has to do with
the fact that set membership also models a particular way of thinking, that of logic
dependence.

Set theory only exists because of its applications. Apart from the obvious fact that
everyone "uses" set theory every day, even if they are unaware of it or have never
learned it, one of the main benefits of set theory is that it simplifies the vocabulary
of other branches of mathematics. Set theory is about how humans categorise
things and group them into "Sets" because it is how we think.

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 CONCLUSION

Applications of set theory are most frequently used in science and

mathematics fields like biology, chemistry, and physics as well as in
computer and electrical engineering. These applications range from
forming logical foundations for geometry, calculus, and topology to
creating algebra revolving around field, rings, and groups. Therefore,
understanding set theory is crucial for learning about any subject or topic
of discrete structure and mathematics, data structures, topology, etc.
since the concept of set theory cannot be ignored.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Bourbaki, N., Théorie des Ensembles, Paris, Hermann, 1963.

2. Fraenkel, A. A., Set Theory and Logic, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley
3. Halmos, P., Naive Set Theory, Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1960.
4. Kamke, E., Theory of Sets, New York, Dover, 1950.
5. Monk, J. D., Introduction to Set Theory, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1969.
6. Quine, W. V., Mathematical Logic, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University
Press’
7. Rubin, J. E., Set Theory for the Mathematician, San Francisco, Holden-Day,
8. Slupecki, J. and L. Borkowski, Elements of Mathematical Logic and Set Theory
9. Suppes, P., Introduction to Logic, Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1957.
10. Suppes, P., Axiomatic Set Theory, Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1960.

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