The research population, also known as the target population,

refers to the entire group or set of individuals, objects, or events

that possess specific,observable characteristics and are of interest
to the researcher
In research, a population is a group of people or things that share certain characteristics
and are the focus of a study

Example;all Defining a population

 Characteristics
The population is defined by the characteristics that are relevant to the
research question. For example, if the research is about exercise habits
of older adults, the population would be adults 65 and older.
 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The population must be clearly defined so that it's clear what is included
and what is excluded.
 Location
The population may be restricted to a specific location, such as a city or
country.
 Age, sex, or occupation
The population may be restricted to a specific age group, sex, or
occupation.
Using a sample
 Sample population: A sample population is a subset of the
population of interest. The sample is used to collect data that can be
used to describe the entire population.
Sample size: The sample size is always smaller than the total
population size.
Using a target population
 Target population: A target population is a subset of the population
that is the main focus of the research
std 8 pupils,all dte teacher trainee

sample

"subject" refers to the person, thing, or phenomenon that is being studied

or investigated; essentially, it's the focus of the research, the topic under
examination, and can include individuals, animals, plants, or even concepts
depending on the study are
An individual who participates in research study by providing information
after completing a research
inteHR, WORKPLACE
a person who answers questions in an interview to see whether they
are suitable for a job or course:
The right questions will enable you to discover whether the interviewee has
all the necessary qualities for the job.

MARKETING
a person who answers questions in an interview about
a product or service, to find out what they think about it:
Sampling in research is the process of selecting a smaller group of people
from a larger population to study. Researchers use sampling when it's not
practical to study the entire population.
Why use sampling?
 Save time and money: Sampling can save time and money when
studying a large population.
Make valid conclusions: Researchers can use a representative
sample to make valid conclusions about the entire population.
Types of sampling
 Simple random sampling
Each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. This method uses random number generators or other
chance-based techniques.
 Systematic sampling
A random starting point is selected, and then members are chosen at a
fixed interval.
 Cluster sampling
The population is divided into smaller groups, and then individuals are
randomly selected from those groups. This method is often used for
large populations that are spread out geographically.
 Stratified sampling
The population is divided into subgroups based on relevant
characteristics, and then a sample is selected from each subgroup. This
method can help researchers draw more precise conclusion

 Simple Random Sampling:

 Imagine drawing names from a hat to select participants for a
study. Each person in the population has an equal chance of being
chosen.
 Stratified Sampling:
To study opinions on a new policy across different age groups, a
researcher might divide the population into age brackets (e.g., 18-25,
26-35, etc.) and randomly select individuals from each group.
 Cluster Sampling:
If studying student opinions on a new curriculum, a researcher might
randomly select a few schools (clusters) from a district and then sample
students within those schools.
 Systematic Sampling:
To survey every 10th customer entering a store, a researcher would
select every 10th person from a list of customers.
 Convenience Sampling:
A researcher might ask students in their class to participate in a survey
because they are readily accessible.
 Purposive Sampling:
To study the experiences of expert musicians, a researcher might
intentionally select musicians known for their high level of skill.
 Quota Sampling:
A researcher might aim to include a certain number of participants from
each gender or income level to ensure representation.
 Snowball Sampling:
To study a hidden population like homeless individuals, a researcher
might ask initial participants to refer others they know who fit the
criteria.
Key points to consider when choosing a sampling technique:
 Research question:
The type of question being asked will influence the best sampling
method.
 Population characteristics:
Consider whether the population is homogenous or diverse when
choosing a sampling method.
 Accessibility:
Some populations might be difficult to reach, necessitating methods like
snowball sampling.
 Generalizability:
Probability sampling methods (like simple random or stratified
sampling) are more likely to produce results that can be generalized to
the broader population

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you
will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called
a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can
use in your research:
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section
of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached minimizing research bias in
your work.
Table of contents
1. Population vs. sample
2. Probability sampling methods
3. Non-probability sampling methods
4. Other interesting articles
5. Frequently asked questions about sampling

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample,
and identify the target population of your research.
 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
  The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.
The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or
many other characteristics.

It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe

you want to make inferences about the whole adult population of your country;
maybe your research focuses on customers of a certain company, patients with a
specific health condition, or students in a single school.
It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and
practicalities of your project.
If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed,
it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of a
representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can lead to
several research biases, particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not
part of that population).
Example: Sampling frameYou are doing research on working conditions at a social media
marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees of the company. Your sampling
frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact details of every
employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design.
There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you
want to achieve with statistical analysis.
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Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators
or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern
in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk
that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is
skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income
bracket, job role).
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company,
so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on
each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100
people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is
more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative
of the whole population.
Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices –
these are your clusters.
Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,
and not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If
you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of
the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative
research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a
broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-
researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell
if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.
Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services
in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed
students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of
all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.
Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your
university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have
strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.
Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your sample
is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling
bias.
Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.
Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible.
You meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact
with other homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and
then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample

Data all information that aresearcher gathers

1 classification of data

2 types of data