DATABASE

Subject Code:

MANAGEMENT 3132

SYSTEMS

Computer
Engineering
Semester 3
Lecture Notes
submitted by:
Lubna K.
Lecturer CT
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MODULE I
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DBMS BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

 Data - Data is facts and statistics stored or free flowing over a network, generally it's raw and
unprocessed. For example: When you visit any website, they might store you IP address, that is
data, in return they might add a cookie in your browser, marking you that you visited the
website, that is data, your name, it's data, your age, it's data.
 Information - Data becomes information when it is processed, turning it into something
meaningful. Like, based on the cookie data saved on user's browser, if a website can analyse that
generally men of age 20-25 visit us more, that is information, derived from the data collected.

 Field - A field consists of a grouping of characters (single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol).
A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic or quality) of some entity (object, person,
place, or event).

 Record - Related fields of data are grouped to form a record. Thus, a record represents a
collection of attributes that describe an entity. Fixed-length records contain a fixed number
of fixed-length data fields. Variable-length records contain a variable number of fields and field
lengths.

 File - A group of related records is known as a data file, or table. Files are frequently classified
by the application for which they are primarily used, such as a payroll file or an inventory file,
or the type of data they contain, such as a document file or a graphical image file. Files are also
classified by their permanence, for example, a master file versus a transaction file. A
transaction file would contain records of all transactions occurring during a period, whereas a
master file contains all the permanent records.

 Database -
 It is a collection of interrelated data.
 Database can be software based or hardware based, with one sole purpose, storing data.
 These can be stored in the form of tables.
 A database can be of any size and varying complexity.
 A database may be generated and manipulated manually or it may be computerized.
 Example: Customer database consists the fields as cname, cno, and ccity

 Database Management System (DBMS) -

 A DBMS is a software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database,
allowing users to store, process and analyse data easily.
 DBMS provides us with an interface or a tool, to perform various operations like creating
database, storing data in it, updating data, creating tables in the database and a lot more.
 DBMS also provides protection and security to the databases. It also maintains data
consistency in case of multiple users.
 Here are some examples of popular DBMS used these days:
-MySql
-Oracle
-SQL Server
-IBM DB2
-PostgreSQL
-Amazon SimpleDB (cloud based) etc.
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Characteristics of Database Management System

A database management system has following characteristics:
1. Data stored into Tables: Data is never directly stored into the database. Data is stored into
tables, created inside the database. DBMS also allows to have relationships between tables
which makes the data more meaningful and connected. You can easily understand what type
of data is stored where by looking at all the tables created in a database.
2. Reduced Redundancy: In the modern world hard drives are very cheap, but earlier when
hard drives were too expensive, unnecessary repetition of data in database was a big
problem. But DBMS follows Normalisation which divides the data in such a way that
repetition is minimum.
3. Data Consistency: On Live data, i.e. data that is being continuously updated and added,
maintaining the consistency of data can become a challenge. But DBMS handles it all by
itself.
4. Support Multiple user and Concurrent Access: DBMS allows multiple users to work on
it(update, insert, delete data) at the same time and still manages to maintain the data
consistency.
5. Query Language: DBMS provides users with a simple Query language, using which data
can be easily fetched, inserted, deleted and updated in a database.
6. Security: The DBMS also takes care of the security of data, protecting the data from un-
authorised access. In a typical DBMS, we can create user accounts with different access
permissions, using which we can easily secure our data by restricting user access.
7. DBMS supports transactions, which allows us to better handle and manage data integrity in
real world applications where multi-threading is extensively used.

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS
 Segregation of applicaion program.
 Minimal data duplicacy or data redundancy.
 Easy retrieval of data using the Query Language.
 Reduced development time and maintainance need.
 With Cloud Datacenters, we now have Database Management Systems capable of storing
almost infinite data.
 Seamless integration into the application programming languages which makes it very easier
to add a database to almost any application or website.

DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS
 It's Complexity
 Except MySQL, which is open source, licensed DBMSs are generally costly.
 They are large in size.
APPLICATIONS OF DBMS

 Banking: all transactions

 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
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COMPONENTS OF DBMS
The database management system can be divided into
five major components, they are:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedures
5. Database Access Language
Let's have a simple diagram to see how they all fit
together to form a database management system.

DBMS Components: Hardware

When we say Hardware, we mean computer, hard
disks, I/O channels for data, and any other physical
component involved before any data is successfully
stored into the memory.
When we run Oracle or MySQL on our personal computer, then our computer's Hard Disk,
Keyboard using which we type in all the commands, computer's RAM, ROM all become a part of
the DBMS hardware.

DBMS Components: Software

This is the main component, as this is the program which controls everything. The DBMS software
is more like a wrapper around the physical database, which provides us with an easy-to-use
interface to store, access and update data.
The DBMS software is capable of understanding the Database Access Language and intrepret it into
actual database commands to execute them on the DB.

DBMS Components: Data

Data is that resource, for which DBMS was designed. The motive behind the creation of DBMS
was to store and utilise data.
In a typical Database, the user saved Data is present and meta data is stored.
Metadata is data about the data. This is information stored by the DBMS to better understand the
data stored in it.
For example: When I store my Name in a database, the DBMS will store when the name was
stored in the database, what is the size of the name, is it stored as related data to some other data, or
is it independent, all this information is metadata.

DBMS Components: Procedures

Procedures refer to general instructions to use a database management system. This includes
procedures to setup and install a DBMS, To login and logout of DBMS software, to manage
databases, to take backups, generating reports etc.
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DBMS Components: Database Access Language

Database Access Language is a simple language designed to write commands to access, insert,
update and delete data stored in any database.
A user can write commands in the Database Access Language and submit it to the DBMS for
execution, which is then translated and executed by the DBMS.
User can create new databases, tables, insert data, fetch stored data, update data and delete the data
using the access language.

Users
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and
permissions who use it for different purposes. Some users
retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a DBMS can
be broadly categorized as follows −
 Administrators − Database Administrators (DBA)
maintain the DBMS and are responsible for
administrating the database. They are responsible to
look after its usage and by whom it should be used.
They create access profiles for users and apply
limitations to maintain isolation and force security.
Administrators also look after DBMS resources like
system license, required tools, and other software and hardware related maintenance.
 Designers (Application Programmer or Software Developer)− Designers are the group of
people who actually work on the designing part of the database. They keep a close watch on
what data should be kept and in what format. They identify and design the whole set of
entities, relations, constraints, and views.
 End Users − End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS. End
users can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates to
sophisticated users such as business analysts.

Understanding DBMS Architecture

 A Database Management system is not always directly available for users and applications
to access and store data in it.
 A Database Management system can be centralised(all the data stored at one location),
decentralised(multiple copies of database at different locations) or hierarchical, depending
upon its architecture.
 In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user directly sits on the
DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on the DBMS itself. It does
not provide handy tools for end-users. Database designers and programmers normally prefer
to use single-tier architecture.
 If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must
have an application through which the DBMS can
be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier architecture
where they access the DBMS by means of an
application. Here the application tier is entirely
independent of the database in terms of operation,
design, and programming.
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3-tier Architecture
A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on
the complexity of the users and how they use the data present in
the database. It is the most widely used architecture to design a
DBMS.
 Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides
along with its query processing languages. We also have
the relations that define the data and their constraints at
this level.
 Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the
application server and the programs that access the
database. For a user, this application tier presents an
abstracted view of the database. End-users are unaware of
any existence of the database beyond the application. At
the other end, the database tier is not aware of any other user beyond the application tier.
Hence, the application layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user
and the database.
 User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any
existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can
be provided by the application. All views are generated by applications that reside in the
application tier.
Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are
independent and can be changed independently.
DATA MODELS
 Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modelled.
 Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS.
 Data models define how data is connected to each other and how they are processed and
stored inside the system.
 The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in
the same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to
introduce lots of duplication and update anomalies.
 While the Relational Model is the most widely used database model, there are other models
too:
 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Entity-relationship Model
 Relational Model
Hierarchical Model
 This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root, to which
all the other data is linked. The hierarchy starts from the Root data, and expands like a
tree, adding child nodes to the parent nodes.
 In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
 This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book,
recipes etc.
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 In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many
relationship between two different types of data, for example, one department can have
many courses, many professors and of-course many students.

Network Model
 This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In
this model data is organised more like a graph, and
are allowed to have more than one parent node.
 In this database model data is more related as more
relationships are established in this database model.
Also, as the data is more related, hence accessing
the data is also easier and fast. This database model
was used to map many-to-many data relationships.
 This was the most widely used database model,
before Relational Model was introduced.

Entity-relationship Model

Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates
entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
BVER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −
 Entities and their attributes.
 Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.
 Entity − An entity in an ER
Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes. Every attribute is defined
by its set of values called domain. For example, in a school database, a student is considered
as an entity. Student has various attributes like name, age, class, etc.
 Relationship − The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships
are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities −
 one to one
 one to many
 many to one
 many to many
Let's take an example, If we have to design a School
Database, then Student will be an entity with
attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is
generally complex, it can be another entity with
attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and there
will be a relationship between them.
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Relational Model
 In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is maintained
by storing a common field.
 This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the most widely
used database model, infact, we can say the only database model used around the world.
 The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information related to a
particular type is stored in rows of that table.
 Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.
 The main highlights of this model are :
- Data is stored in tables called relations.
- Relations can be normalized.
- In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
- Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
- Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

DATABASE SCHEMA
 A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database.
 It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are associated.
 It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.
 A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them.
 It contains a descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema
diagrams.
 It’s the database designers who design the schema to help programmers understand the
database and make it useful.
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A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −

 Physical Database Schema :
- This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its form of storage like files, indices,
etc.
- It is the lowest level and describes how the data is actually stored in a secondary storage.
- Example: Customer account database can be described.
 Logical/Conceptual Database Schema :
- This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to be applied on the data stored. It
defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.
- This is next higher level that describes what data and what relationships in the database.
- Example: Each record
type customer = record
cust_name: sting;
cust_city: string;
cust_street: string;
end;
 External (View) Level:
- This a highest level, which describes
entire database.
- Example: All application programs.

DATABASE INSTANCE
 Database schema is the skeleton of database. It is designed when the database doesn't exist
at all. Once the database is operational, it is very difficult to make any changes to it. A
database schema does not contain any data or information.
 A database instance is a state of operational database with data at any given time. It contains
a snapshot of the database. Database instances tend to change with time.
 A DBMS ensures that its every instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following all
the validations, constraints, and conditions that the database designers have imposed.

DATA INDEPENDENCE
 A database system normally contains a lot of data in
addition to users’ data.
 For example, it stores data about data, known as
metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is
rather difficult to modify or update a set of metadata
once it is stored in the database.
 But as a DBMS expands, it needs to change over time
to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the entire
data is dependent, it would become a tedious and
highly complex job.
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 Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it
does not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.

Logical Data Independence

 Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is managed
inside.
 For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on that
relation.

Physical Data Independence

 All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk.
 Physical data independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the
schema or logical data.
 For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself − suppose we
want to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the logical data or
schemas.
DATABASE LANGUAGES
Data Definition Languages (DDL)
Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to classify the database structure or schema. It
is a type of language that allows the DBA or user to depict and name those entities, attributes, and
relationships that are required for the application along with any associated integrity and security
constraints. Here are the lists of tasks that come under DDL:
 CREATE - used to create objects in the database
 ALTER - used to alters the structure of the database
 DROP - used to delete objects from the database
 TRUNCATE - used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
 COMMENT - used to add comments to the data dictionary
 RENAME - used to rename an object
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
A language that offers a set of operations to support the fundamental data manipulation operations
on the data held in the database. Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used to
manage data within schema objects. Here are the lists of tasks that come under DML:
 SELECT - It retrieves data from a database
 INSERT - It inserts data into a table
 UPDATE - It updates existing data within a table
 DELETE - It deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain
 MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update)
 CALL - It calls a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
 EXPLAIN PLAN - It explains access path to data
 LOCK TABLE - It controls concurrency
Data Control Language (DCL)
The Data Control Language (DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To perform any
operation in the database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views we need privileges.
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Privileges are of two types,

 System - creating a session, table etc are all types of system privilege.
 Object - any command or query to work on tables comes under object privilege. DCL is
used to define two commands. These are:
 Grant - It gives user access privileges to a database.
 Revoke - It takes back permissions from the user.
Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Transaction Control statements are used to run the changes made by DML statements. It allows
statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.
 COMMIT - It saves the work done
 SAVEPOINT - It identifies a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
 ROLLBACK - It restores database to original since the last COMMIT
 SET TRANSACTION - It changes the transaction options like isolation level and what
rollback segment to use.
Centralized database system:
The centralized database system consist of a single processor together with it associated data
storage devices and other peripherals. It is physically confined to a single location. The data can be
accessed from the multiple sites with the use of a computer network while the database is
maintained at the central site.
Disadvantages of centralized database system:
 When the central site computer or database system goes down, then everyone is blocked
from using the system until the system comes back.
 Communication costs from the terminals to the central site can be expensive.
Client server dbms:
Client / server architecture of database systems has two logical components namely client and
server. Client is generally personal computer or workstations whereas server is large workstations,
mini range computer system or a mainframe computer system. The application and toals of DBMS
run on one or more client platforms, while the DBMS softwares reside on the server. The server
computer is called front end. These server and client computer are connected into a network. The
application and tools act as client of the DBMS making requests for its services; client/ server
architecture handles the graphical user interface (GUI) and does computations and other
programming of interest to the end user.
Advantages: 1. CLIENT / SERVER system has less expensive platforms to support applications
that had previously been running only on large and expensive mini or main frame computers.
2. Client/ server environment facilities in more productive work by the users and
making better use of existing data.
3. It is more flexible as compared to the centralized systems.
4. Responsive time 7 throughput is high.
5. A single dg(on server) can be shared across several distinct client (application)
system.
Disadvantages: 1. Programming cost is high in client / server environment, particularly in
initial phases.
2.There’s a lack of management tools for diagnosis, performance monitoring
and tuning and security control, for the DBMS client and OS and networking environments.
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MODULE II
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RELATIONAL DBMS
 A Relational Database management System(RDBMS) is a database management system
based on the relational model introduced by E.F Codd.
 In relational model, data is stored in relations(tables) and is represented in form of
tuples(rows).
 RDBMS is used to manage Relational database.
 Relational database is a collection of organized set of tables related to each other, and from
which data can be accessed easily.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Table:
 A table is a collection of data elements organised in terms of rows and columns.
 A table is also considered as a convenient representation of relations.
 But a table can have duplicate row of data while a true relation cannot have duplicate data.
 Table is the most simplest form of data storage.
 Below is an example of an Employee table.
ID Name Age Salary
1 Adam 34 13000
2 Alex 28 15000
3 Stuart 20 18000
4 Ross 42 19020

Tuple:
 A single entry in a table is called a Tuple or Record or Row.
 A tuple in a table represents a set of related data. For example, the above Employee table
has 4 tuples/records/rows.
 Following is an example of single record or tuple.
1 Adam 34 13000

Attribute:
 A table consists of several records(row), each record can be broken down into several
smaller parts of data known as Attributes.
 In the above Employee table consist of four attributes, ID, Name, Age and Salary.

Attribute Domain
 When an attribute is defined in a relation(table), it is defined to hold only a certain type of
values, which is known as Attribute Domain.
 Hence, the attribute Name will hold the name of employee for every tuple. If we save
employee's address there, it will be violation of the Relational database model.
Name
Adam
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Alex
Stuart - 9/401, OC Street, Amsterdam
Ross

Relation Schema:
 A relation schema describes the structure of the relation, with the name of the relation(name
of table), its attributes and their names and type.
Relation instance:
 A finite set of tuples in the relational database system represents relation instance. Relation
instances do not have duplicate tuples.

Relation Key:
 A relation key is an attribute which can uniquely identify a particular tuple(row) in a
relation(table).

Relational Integrity Constraints

Every relation in a relational database model should abide by or follow a few constraints to be a
valid relation, these constraints are called as Relational Integrity Constraints.
The three main Integrity Constraints are:
1. Key Constraints
2. Domain Constraints
3. Referential integrity Constraints

Key Constraints
We store data in tables, to later access it whenever required. In every table one or more than one
attributes together are used to fetch data from tables. The Key Constraint specifies that there
should be such an attribute(column) in a relation(table), which can be used to fetch data for any
tuple(row).
The Key attribute should never be NULL or same for two different row of data.
For example, in the Employee table we can use the attribute ID to fetch data for each of the
employee. No value of ID is null and it is unique for every row, hence it can be our Key attribute.

Domain Constraint
Domain constraints refer to the rules defined for the values that can be stored for a certain attribute.
Like we explained above, we cannot store Address of employee in the column for Name.
Similarly, a mobile number cannot exceed 10 digits.

Referential Integrity Constraint

We will study about this in detail later. For now remember this example, if I say Alice is my
girlfriend, then a girl with name Alice should also exist for that relationship to be present.
If a table reference to some data from another table, then that table and that data should be present
for referential integrity constraint to hold true.
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Database Keys
 Keys are very important part of Relational database model. They are used to establish and
identify relationships between tables and also to uniquely identify any record or row of data
inside a table.
 A Key can be a single attribute or a group of attributes, where the combination may act as a
key.

Why we need a Key?

 In real world applications, number of tables required for storing the data is huge, and the
different tables are related to each other as well. Also, tables store a lot of data in them.
Tables generally extend to thousands of records stored in them, unsorted and unorganised.
 Now to fetch any particular record from such dataset, you will have to apply some
conditions, but what if there is duplicate data present and every time you try to fetch some
data by applying certain condition, you get the wrong data. How many trials before you get
the right data?
 To avoid all this, Keys are defined to easily identify any row of data in a table.
Let's try to understand about all the keys using a simple example.
student_id name phone age
1 Akon 9876723452 17
2 Akon 9991165674 19
3 Bkon 7898756543 18
4 Ckon 8987867898 19
5 Dkon 9990080080 17
Let's take a simple Student table, with fields student_id, name, phone and age.

Super Key
 Super Key is defined as a set of attributes within a table that can uniquely identify each
record within a table. Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.
 In the table defined above super key would include student_id, (student_id, name), phone
etc.
 The first one is pretty simple as student_id is unique for every row of data, hence it can be
used to identity each row uniquely.
 Next comes, (student_id, name), now name of two students can be same, but their student_id
can't be same hence this combination can also be a key.
 Similarly, phone number for every student will be unique, hence again, phone can also be a
key. So they all are super keys.

Candidate Key
 Candidate keys are defined as the minimal set of fields which can uniquely identify each
record in a table.
 It is an attribute or a set of attributes that can act as a Primary Key for a table to uniquely
identify each record in that table.
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 In our example, student_id and phone both are candidate keys for table Student.
 A candiate key can never be NULL or empty. And its value should be unique.
 There can be more than one candidate keys for a table.
 A candidate key can be a combination of more than one columns(attributes).

Primary Key
 Primary key is a candidate key that is most
appropriate to become the main key for any
table.
 It is a key that can uniquely identify each
record in a table.
 For the table Student we can make the
student_id column as the primary key.

Composite Key
 Key that consists of two or more
attributes that uniquely identify any
record in a table is called Composite key.
 But the attributes which together form the
Composite key are not a key
independentely or individually.
 In the above picture we have a Score
table which stores the marks scored by a
student in a particular subject.
 In this table student_id and subject_id
together will form the primary key, hence it is a composite key.

Secondary or Alternative key

 The candidate key which are not selected as primary key are known as secondary keys or
alternative keys.

Non-key Attributes
 Non-key attributes are the attributes or fields of a table, other than candidate key
attributes/fields in a table.

Non-prime Attributes
 Non-prime Attributes are attributes other than Primary Key attribute(s).

Basic Concepts of ER Model in DBMS

 Entity-relationship model is a model used for design and representation of relationships
between data.
 The main data objects are termed as Entities, with their details defined as attributes, some of
these attributes are important and are used to identity the entity, and different entities are
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related using relationships.

ER Model: Entity and Entity Set

 An Entity is generally a real-world object which has characteristics and holds relationships
in a DBMS.
 Example: For a School Management Software, we will have to store Student information,
Teacher information, Classes, Subjects taught in each class etc. Considering this example,
Student is an entity, Teacher is an entity, similarly, Class, Subject etc are also entities.
 If a Student is an Entity, then the complete dataset of all the students will be the Entity Set

ER Model: Attributes
 If a Student is an Entity, then student's roll no., student's name, student's age, student's
gender etc will be its attributes.
 An attribute can be of many types, here are different types of attributes defined in ER
database model:
1. Simple attribute: The attributes with values that are atomic and cannot be broken down
further are simple attributes. For example, student's age.
2. Composite attribute: A composite attribute is made up of more than one simple attribute.
For example, student's address will contain, house no., street name, pincode etc.
3. Derived attribute: These are the attributes which are not present in the whole database
management system, but are derived using other attributes. For example, average age of
students in a class.
4. Single-valued attribute: As the name suggests, they have a single value.
5. Multi-valued attribute: And, they can have multiple values.

ER Model: Keys
If the attribute roll no. can uniquely identify a student entity, amongst all the students, then the
attribute roll no. will be said to be a key.
Following are the types of Keys:
1. Super Key
2. Candidate Key
3. Primary Key

ER Model: Relationships
 When an Entity is related to another Entity, they are said to have a relationship. For
example, A Class Entity is related to Student entity, because students study in classes, hence
this is a relationship.
 Depending upon the number of entities involved, a degree is assigned to relationships.
 For example, if 2 entities are involved, it is said to be Binary relationship, if 3 entities are
involved, it is said to be Ternary relationship, and so on.

Working with ER Diagrams

 ER Diagram is a visual representation of data that describes how data is related to each
other. In ER Model, we disintegrate data into entities, attributes and setup relationships
 19

between entities, all this can

be represented visually using
the ER diagram.
 For example, in the given
diagram, anyone can see and
understand what the diagram
wants to convey: Developer
develops a website, whereas
a Visitor visits a website.

Components of ER Diagram
 Entitiy, Attributes, Relationships etc form the components of ER Diagram and there are
defined symbols and shapes to represent each one of them.

Entity
 Simple rectangular box represents an Entity.
 An Entity can be any object, place, person, or class.
 In ER Diagram, an entity is represented using
rectangles.
 Consider an example of an Organisation-
Employee, Manager, Department, Product and
many more can be taken as entities in an
Organisation.
 The yellow rhombus in between represents a
relationship.

Relationships between Entities - Weak and Strong

Rhombus is used to setup relationships between two or more entities.

Weak Entity
 A weak Entity is represented using double rectangular boxes. It is generally connected to
another entity.
 Weak entity is an entity that depends on another
entity.
 Weak entity doesn't have any key attribute of its own.
 Double rectangle is used to represent a weak entity.
 20

Attributes for any Entity

 Ellipse is used to represent attributes of any entity. It
is connected to the entity.
 An Attribute describes a property or characteristic of
an entity. For example, Name, Age, Address etc can
be attributes of a Student.
 An attribute is represented using eclipse.

Key Attribute for any Entity

 To represent a Key attribute, the attribute name inside
the Ellipse is underlined.
 Key attribute represents the main characteristic
of an Entity. It is used to represent a Primary
key. Ellipse with the text underlined, represents
Key Attribute.

Derived Attribute for any Entity

 Derived attributes are those which are derived
based on other attributes, for example, age can
be derived from date of birth.
 To represent a derived attribute, another dotted ellipse is created inside
the main ellipse.

Multivalued Attribute for any Entity

 Double Ellipse, one inside another, represents the attribute which can
have multiple values.

Composite Attribute for any Entity

 An attribute can also have their own attributes. These attributes are known as Composite
attributes.

ER Diagram: Relationship
 A Relationship describes relation between entities.
 Relationship is represented using diamonds or rhombus.
 There are three types of relationship that exist between Entities.
 21

1. Binary Relationship
2. Recursive Relationship
3. Ternary Relationship

ER Diagram: Binary Relationship

Binary Relationship means relation between two Entities. This is further divided into three types.

1. One to One Relationship

 This type of relationship is rarely seen in real world.

 The above example describes that one student can enroll only for one course and a course
will also have only one Student.

2. One to Many Relationship

 The below example showcases this relationship, which means that 1 student can opt for
many courses, but a course can only have 1 student.

3. Many to One Relationship

 It reflects business rule that many entities can be associated with just one entity. For
example, Student enrolls for only one Course but a Course can have many Students.

4. Many to Many Relationship

 22

 The above diagram represents that one student can enroll for more than one courses. And a
course can have more than 1 student enrolled in it.

The Enhanced ER Model

 As the complexity of data increased in the late 1980s, it became more and more difficult to
use the traditional ER Model for database modelling.
 Hence some improvements or enhancements were made to the existing ER Model to make it
able to handle the complex applications better.
 Hence, as part of the Enhanced ER Model, along with other improvements, three new
concepts were added to the existing ER Model, they were:
1. Generalization
2. Specialization
3. Aggregation

Generalization
 Generalization is a bottom-up approach in which
two lower level entities combine to form a higher
level entity.
 In generalization, the higher level entity can also
combine with other lower level entities to make
further higher level entity.
 It's more like Superclass and Subclass system, but
the only difference is the approach, which is bottom-
up.
 Hence, entities are combined to form a more
generalised entity, in other words, sub-classes are
combined to form a super-class.
 For example, Saving and Current account types
entities can be generalised and an entity with name
Account can be created, which covers both.

Specialization
 Specialization is opposite to Generalization.
 It is a top-down approach in which one higher level
entity can be broken down into two lower level entity.
 in specialization, a higher level entity may not have
 23

any lower-level entity sets, it's possible.

Aggregation
 Aggregation is a process when relation between two
entities is treated as a single entity.
 In the diagram, the relationship between Center and
Course together, is acting as an Entity, which is in
relationship with another entity Visitor.
 Now in real world, if a Visitor or a Student visits a
Coaching Center, he/she will never enquire about the
center only or just about the course, rather he/she will ask
enquire about both.

Relational Algebra
 Every database management system must define a query
language to allow users to access the data stored in the database.
 In relational algebra, input is a relation(table from which data has to be accessed) and output
is also a relation(a temporary table holding the data asked for by the user).
 It uses operators to perform queries.
 An operator can be either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input and yield
relations as their output.

 Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate results are also
considered relations.
The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as follows −
 Select
 Project
 Union
 Set different
 Cartesian product
 Rename
 24

1. Select Operation (σ)

 It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.
Notation − σp(r)

σ - selection predicate
r - relation.
P - prepositional logic formula which may use connectors like and, or, and not. These
terms may use relational operators like − =, ≠, ≥, < , >, ≤.
For example − 1) σsubject = "database"(Books)
Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'.
2) σsubject = "database" and price = "450"(Books)

Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450.
3) σsubject = "database" and price = "450" or year > "2010"(Books)

Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and 'price' is 450 or those books
published after 2010.

2. Project Operation (∏)

 It projects column(s) that satisfy a given predicate.
Notation − ∏A1, A2, An (r)

Where A1, A2 , An are attribute names of relation r.

Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated, as relation is a set.
For example −
∏subject, author (Books)

Selects and projects columns named as subject and author from the relation Books.

3. Union Operation (∪)

It performs binary union between two given relations and is defined as −
r ∪ s = { t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}

Notation − r U s
Where r and s are either database relations or relation result set (temporary relation).
For a union operation to be valid, the following conditions must hold −
 r, and s must have the same number of attributes.
 Attribute domains must be compatible.
 Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated.
∏ author (Books) ∪ ∏ author (Articles)
 25

Output − Projects the names of the authors who have either written a book or an article or both.

4. Set Difference (−)

The result of set difference operation is tuples, which are present in one relation but are not in the
second relation.
Notation − r − s
Finds all the tuples that are present in r but not in s.
∏ author (Books) − ∏ author (Articles)

Output − Provides the name of authors who have written books but not articles.

5. Cartesian Product (Χ)

Combines information of two different relations into one.
Notation − r Χ s
Where r and s are relations and their output will be defined as −
r Χ s = { q t | q ∈ r and t ∈ s}
σauthor = 'tutorialspoint'(Books Χ Articles)

Output − Yields a relation, which shows all the books and articles written by tutorialspoint.

6. Rename Operation (ρ)

The results of relational algebra are also relations but without any name. The rename operation
allows us to rename the output relation. 'rename' operation is denoted with small Greek letter rho ρ.
Notation − ρ x (E)
ρ(RelationNew, RelationOld)
Where the result of expression E is saved with name of x.
Additional operations are −
 Set intersection
 Assignment
 Natural join

ER Model to Relational Model

 ER Model, when conceptualized into diagrams, gives a good overview of entity-relationship,
which is easier to understand.
 ER diagrams can be mapped to relational schema, that is, it is possible to create relational
schema using ER diagram.
 Not all the ER Model constraints and components can be directly transformed into relational
model, but an approximate schema can be derived.
 There are several processes and algorithms available to convert ER Diagrams into Relational
Schema.
 26

Entity becomes Table

 Entity in ER Model is changed into tables, or we can say for every Entity in ER model, a
table is created in Relational Model.
 And the attributes of the Entity gets converted
to columns of the table.
 And the primary key specified for the entity in
the ER model, will become the primary key for
the table in relational model.
 For example, for the given ER Diagram in ER
Model, A table with name Student will be
created in relational model, which will have 4
columns, id, name, age, address and id will be
the primary key for this table.

Relationship becomes a Relationship Table

 In ER diagram, we use diamond/rhombus to represent a relationship between two entities.
 In Relational model we create a relationship table for
ER Model relationships too.
 In the ER diagram below, we have two entities
Teacher and Student with a relationship between
them.
 Entity gets mapped to table, hence we will create
table for Teacher and a table for Student with all
the attributes converted into columns.
 Now, an additional table will be created for the
relationship, for example StudentTeacher or give it
any name you like. This table will hold the primary
key for both Student and Teacher, in a tuple to
describe the relationship, which teacher teaches which student.
 If there are additional attributes related to this relationship, then they become the columns
for this table, like subject name.
 Also proper foreign key constraints must be set for all the tables.

Note:
Similarly we can generate relational database schema using the ER diagram. Following are some
key points to keep in mind while doing so:
1. Entity gets converted into Table, with all the attributes becoming fields(columns) in the
table.
2. Relationship between entities is also converted into table with primary keys of the related
entities also stored in it as foreign keys.
3. Primary Keys should be properly set.
4. For any relationship of Weak Entity, if primary key of any other entity is included in a table,
foriegn key constraint must be defined.
 27

MODULE III
 28

Introduction to SQL
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language
 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:
 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
 To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
 To use SQL to get the data you want
 To use HTML / CSS to style the page

RDBMS
 RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
 RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server,
IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
 The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of
related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
 Look at the "Customers" table:
Example : SELECT * FROM Customers;
 Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the Customers table
consist of CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode and
Country.
 A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every
record in the table.
 A record, also called a row, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example, there
are 91 records in the above Customers table. A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
 29

 A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a
specific field in a table.

SQL Syntax

Database Tables
 A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
 Here we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included in MS Access and
MS SQL Server).
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Alfreds
1 Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8
The table 3.1 above contains five records (one for each customer) and seven columns (CustomerID,
CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, and Country). This table will be used in
all examples in this session.

SQL Statements
 Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements.
 The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:
 Example: SELECT * FROM Customers;
 SQL keywords are NOT case sensitive: select is the same as SELECT

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

 Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
 Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that
allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same call to the server.

Some of The Most Important SQL Commands

 SELECT - extracts data from a database
 UPDATE - updates data in a database
 DELETE - deletes data from a database
 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
 30

 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database

 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
 DROP TABLE - deletes a table
 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
 DROP INDEX - deletes an index

The SQL SELECT Statement

 The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
 The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
 Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select data from. If
you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the following syntax:
 SELECT * FROM table_name;

SELECT Column Example

 The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the
"Customers" table:

 Example: SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;

SELECT * Example
 The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:

 Example: SELECT * FROM Customers;

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

 The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
 Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want
to list the different (distinct) values.
 The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.

SELECT DISTINCT Syntax

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

SELECT Example
 The following SQL statement selects all (and duplicate) values from the "Country" column
in the "Customers" table:
 31

 Example: SELECT Country FROM Customers;

SELECT DISTINCT Examples

 The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the "Country" column
in the "Customers" table:

 Example: SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;

SELECT COUNT
 The following SQL statement lists the number of different (distinct) customer countries:

Example
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Country) FROM Customers;

The SQL WHERE Clause

 The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
 The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

WHERE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, it is also used in UPDATE,
DELETE statement, etc.!

WHERE Clause Example

 The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the
"Customers" table:

 Example : SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Mexico';

Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as !=
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
 32

IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

 Example:SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerID=1;

The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

 The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators.
 The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition:
 The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND is TRUE.
 The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE.
 The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE.

AND Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;

OR Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;

NOT Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;

AND Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is "Germany" AND
city is "Berlin":

Example : SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';

OR Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where city is "Berlin" OR
"München":

Example : SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='München';

NOT Example
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT
 33

"Germany":

Example : SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE NOT Country='Germany';

Combining AND, OR and NOT

You can also combine the AND, OR and NOT operators.
 The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is
"Germany" AND city must be "Berlin" OR "München" (use parenthesis to form complex
expressions):

Example 1: SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Germany' AND (City='Berlin' OR City='München');
 The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country is NOT
"Germany" and NOT "USA":

Example 2: SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE NOT Country='Germany' AND NOT Country='USA';

The SQL ORDER BY Keyword

 The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.
 The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the
records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.

ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

ORDER BY Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the
"Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country;

ORDER BY DESC Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted
DESCENDING by the "Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country DESC;
 34

ORDER BY Several Columns Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the
"Country" and the "CustomerName" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country, CustomerName;

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

 The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

INSERT INTO Syntax

 It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways.
1. The first way specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the
column names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order of the values is in the same
order as the columns in the table. The INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

INSERT INTO Example

The following SQL statement inserts a new record in the "Customers" table:

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode,
Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway');
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
305 - 14th
White Clover
89 Karl Jablonski Ave. S. Suite Seattle 98128 USA
Markets
3B
Matti
90 Wilman Kala Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
Tom B.
92 Cardinal Skagen 21 Stavanger 4006 Norway
Erichsen

The CustomerID column is an auto-increment field and will be generated automatically when a new
record is inserted into the table.
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
 35

 It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.

The following SQL statement will insert a new record, but only insert data in the "CustomerName",
"City", and "Country" columns (CustomerID will be updated automatically):

Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
305 - 14th
White Clover
89 Karl Jablonski Ave. S. Suite Seattle 98128 USA
Markets
3B
Matti
90 Wilman Kala Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
92 Cardinal null null Stavanger null Norway

What is a NULL Value?

 A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
 If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a record without
adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a NULL value.
Note: It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different from a zero value or a field
that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record
creation!

How to Test for NULL Values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;
 Assume we have the following "Persons" table:
ID LastName FirstName Address City
1 Doe John 542 W. 27th Street New York
2 Bloggs Joe London
3 Roe Jane New York
4 Smith John 110 Bishopsgate London
Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. If a record is inserted with no
value for "Address", the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value.
 36

 The following SQL statement uses the IS NULL operator to list all persons that have no
address:
SELECT LastName, FirstName, Address FROM Persons
WHERE Address IS NULL;
The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName Address
Bloggs Joe
Roe Jane

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!

UPDATE Table
 The following SQL statement updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with a new
contact person and a new city.

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City= 'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Alfreds Alfred
1 Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste Schmidt
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México
3 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
 37

Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen

5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

UPDATE Multiple Records

 It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records that will be updated.
 The following SQL statement will update the contactname to "Juan" for all records where
country is "Mexico":

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'
WHERE Country='Mexico';
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Alfreds Alfred
1 Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste Schmidt
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Juan Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Mataderos México
3 Juan 05023 Mexico
Taquería 2312 D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen
5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be updated!

Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan';

The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!
 38

SQL DELETE Example

The following SQL statement deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the "Customers"
table:

Example
DELETE FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
The "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Antonio México
3 Mataderos 2312 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno D.F.
120 Hanover
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy London WA1 1DP UK
Sq.
Berglunds Christina
5 Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund

Delete All Records

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
or
DELETE * FROM table_name;

The SQL SELECT TOP Clause

 The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
 The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a
large number of records can impact on performance.
 Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports the
LIMIT clause to select a limited number of records, while Oracle uses ROWNUM.
SQL Server / MS Access Syntax:
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
MySQL Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
 39

LIMIT number;
Oracle Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;

SQL TOP, LIMIT and ROWNUM Examples

The following SQL statement selects the first three records from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example using the LIMIT clause:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
LIMIT 3;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example using ROWNUM:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

SQL TOP PERCENT Example

The following SQL statement selects the first 50% of the records from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;

The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

 The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
 The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.

MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
 40

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

MIN() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the cheapest product:

Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice
FROM Products;

MAX() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the most expensive product:

Example
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice
FROM Products;

The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

 The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
 The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
 The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
 41

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10
4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

COUNT() Example
The following SQL statement finds the number of products:

Example
SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products;

AVG() Example
The following SQL statement finds the average price of all products:

Example
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table in the Northwind sample database:
OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity
1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40

SUM() Example
The following SQL statement finds the sum of the "Quantity" fields in the "OrderDetails" table:

Example
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;

The SQL GROUP BY Statement

 The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN,
SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.
 42

GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

SQL GROUP BY Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

The SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with
aggregate functions.

HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);

SQL HAVING Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country. Only include countries
with more than 5 customers:

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low
(Only include countries with more than 5 customers):
 43

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

Syntax
CREATE DATABASE databasename;

CREATE DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement creates a database called "testDB":

Example
CREATE DATABASE testDB;

The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database.

Syntax
DROP DATABASE databasename;
Note: Be careful before dropping a database. Deleting a database will result in loss of complete
information stored in the database!

DROP DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing database "testDB":

Example
DROP DATABASE testDB;

The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
 The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
 44

 The datatype parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar, integer,
date, etc.).

SQL CREATE TABLE Example

The following example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: PersonID,
LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:

Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
 The PersonID column is of type int and will hold an integer.
 The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar and will hold
characters, and the maximum length for these fields is 255 characters.
 The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
PersonID LastName FirstName Address City

The empty "Persons" table can now be filled with data with the SQL INSERT INTO statement.

The SQL DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.

Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Note: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of complete
information stored in the table!

SQL DROP TABLE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing table "Shippers":

Example
DROP TABLE Shippers;

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not the table itself.

Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
 45

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

 The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
 The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an
existing table.

ALTER TABLE - ADD Column

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;

ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column):
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE Example

Look at the "Persons" table:
ID LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
 We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date;
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
ID LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

SQL JOIN
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column
between them.
Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID OrderDate
10308 2 1996-09-18
10309 37 1996-09-19
10310 77 1996-09-20
 46

Then, look at a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico
Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the "CustomerID" in the
"Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables above is the "CustomerID" column.
Then, we can create the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN), that selects
records that have matching values in both tables:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
and it will produce something like this:
OrderID CustomerName OrderDate
10308 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 9/18/1996
10365 Antonio Moreno Taquería 11/27/1996
10383 Around the Horn 12/16/1996
10355 Around the Horn 11/15/1996
10278 Berglunds snabbköp 8/12/1996

Different Types of SQL JOINs

Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:
 (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the right table, and the matched records
from the left table
 FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records when there is a match in either left or right table

SQL INNER JOIN KEYWORD

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.

INNER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
 47

SQL INNER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with customer information:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns. If there are records in the "Orders" table that do not have matches in
"Customers", these orders will not be shown!

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword return all records when there is a match in either left (table1) or
right (table2) table records.
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
PostalC
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City Country
ode
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Constitución 05021 Mexico
D.F.
helados 2222
Antonio Moreno Mataderos México
3 Antonio Moreno 05023 Mexico
Taquería 2312 D.F.
And a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
 48

FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID

ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
A selection from the result set may look like this:
CustomerName OrderID
Alfreds Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308
Antonio Moreno Taquería 10365
10382
10351
Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Customers), and
all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Customers" that do not have matches
in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows
will be listed as well.

SQL VIEWS

1. SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

 In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
 A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from
one or more real tables in the database.
 You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.

CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the
view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

 If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by
default.
 The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued)
from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:
CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID, ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued = No;
 Then, we can query the view as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Current Product List];
 Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products"
 49

table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice > (SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products);
 We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];
 Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997.
Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":
CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS
SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName, Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName;
 We can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997];
 We can also add a condition to the query. Let's see the total sale only for the category
"Beverages":
SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]
WHERE CategoryName = 'Beverages';

2. SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the
view with the following SQL:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID, ProductName, Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued = No;

3. SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;

DBMS- TRANSACTION
 A transaction can be defined as a group of tasks. A single task is the minimum processing
 50

unit which cannot be divided further.

 Let’s take an example of a simple transaction. Suppose a bank employee transfers Rs 500
from A's account to B's account. This very simple and small transaction involves several
low-level tasks.
A’s Account
Open_Account(A)
Old_Balance = A.balance
New_Balance = Old_Balance - 500
A.balance = New_Balance
Close_Account(A)

B’s Account
Open_Account(B)
Old_Balance = B.balance
New_Balance = Old_Balance + 500
B.balance = New_Balance
Close_Account(B)

ACID Properties
A transaction is a very small unit of a program and it may contain several lowlevel tasks. A
transaction in a database system must maintain Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability −
commonly known as ACID properties − in order to ensure accuracy, completeness, and data
integrity.
 Atomicity − This property states that a transaction must be treated as an atomic unit, that is,
either all of its operations are executed or none. There must be no state in a database where a
transaction is left partially completed. States should be defined either before the execution of
the transaction or after the execution/abortion/failure of the transaction.
 Consistency − The database must remain in a consistent state after any transaction. No
transaction should have any adverse effect on the data residing in the database. If the
database was in a consistent state before the execution of a transaction, it must remain
consistent after the execution of the transaction as well.
 Durability − The database should be durable enough to hold all its latest updates even if the
system fails or restarts. If a transaction updates a chunk of data in a database and commits,
then the database will hold the modified data. If a transaction commits but the system fails
before the data could be written on to the disk, then that data will be updated once the
system springs back into action.
 Isolation − In a database system where more than one transaction are being executed
simultaneously and in parallel, the property of isolation states that all the transactions will be
carried out and executed as if it is the only transaction in the system. No transaction will
affect the existence of any other transaction.

Serializability
When multiple transactions are being executed by the operating system in a multiprogramming
environment, there are possibilities that instructions of one transactions are interleaved with some
 51

other transaction.
Schedule − A chronological execution sequence of a transaction is called a schedule. A schedule
can have many transactions in it, each comprising of a number of instructions/tasks.
Serial Schedule − It is a schedule in which transactions are aligned in such a way that one
transaction is executed first. When the first transaction completes its cycle, then the next
transaction is executed. Transactions are ordered one after the other. This type of schedule is
called a serial schedule, as transactions are executed in a serial manner.
 In a multi-transaction environment, serial schedules are considered as a benchmark.
 The execution sequence of an instruction in a transaction cannot be changed, but two
transactions can have their instructions executed in a random fashion.
 This execution does no harm if two transactions are mutually independent and working on
different segments of data; but in case these two transactions are working on the same data,
then the results may vary. This ever-varying result may bring the database to an inconsistent
state.
 To resolve this problem, we allow parallel execution of a transaction schedule, if its
transactions are either serializable or have some equivalence relation among them.

Equivalence Schedules
An equivalence schedule can be of the following types −

Result Equivalence
If two schedules produce the same result after execution, they are said to be result equivalent. They
may yield the same result for some value and different results for another set of values. That's why
this equivalence is not generally considered significant.

View Equivalence
Two schedules would be view equivalence if the transactions in both the schedules perform similar
actions in a similar manner.
For example −
 If T reads the initial data in S1, then it also reads the initial data in S2.
 If T reads the value written by J in S1, then it also reads the value written by J in S2.
 If T performs the final write on the data value in S1, then it also performs the final write on
the data value in S2.

Conflict Equivalence
Two schedules would be conflicting if they have the following properties −
 Both belong to separate transactions.
 Both accesses the same data item.
 At least one of them is "write" operation.
Two schedules having multiple transactions with conflicting operations are said to be conflict
equivalent if and only if −
 Both the schedules contain the same set of Transactions.
 52

 The order of conflicting pairs of operation is maintained in both the schedules.

Note − View equivalent schedules are view serializable and conflict equivalent schedules are
conflict serializable. All conflict serializable schedules are view serializable too.

States of Transactions
A transaction in a database can be in one of the following states −
 Active − In this state, the transaction is being executed. This is the initial state of every
transaction.
 Partially Committed − When a transaction executes its final operation, it is said to be in a
partially committed state.
 Failed − A transaction is said to be in a failed state if any of the checks made by the
database recovery system fails. A failed transaction can no longer proceed further.

 Aborted − If any of the checks fails and the transaction has reached a failed state, then the
recovery manager rolls back all its write operations on the database to bring the database
back to its original state where it was prior to the execution of the transaction. Transactions
in this state are called aborted. The database recovery module can select one of the two
operations after a transaction aborts −
 Re-start the transaction
 Kill the transaction
 Committed − If a transaction executes all its operations successfully, it is said to be
committed. All its effects are now permanently established on the database system.

TCL Commands- Commit, Rollback and Savepoint SQL commands

 Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in the
database.
 These are used to manage the changes made to the data in a table by DML statements. It also
allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.

COMMIT command
 COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction into the database.
 53

 When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE, the changes made
by these commands are not permanent, until the current session is closed, the changes made
by these commands can be rolled back.
 To avoid that, we use the COMMIT command to mark the changes as permanent.
 Following is commit command's syntax,
COMMIT;

ROLLBACK command
 This command restores the database to last commited state. It is also used with SAVEPOINT
command to jump to a savepoint in an ongoing transaction.
 If we have used the UPDATE command to make some changes into the database, and realise
that those changes were not required, then we can use the ROLLBACK command to
rollback those changes, if they were not commited using the COMMIT command.
 Following is rollback command's syntax,
ROLLBACK TO savepoint_name;

SAVEPOINT command
 SAVEPOINT command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to
that point whenever required.
 Following is savepoint command's syntax,
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

 In short, using this command we can name the different states of our data in any table and
then rollback to that state using the ROLLBACK command whenever required.

Using Savepoint and Rollback

Following is the table class,
id name
1 Abhi
2 Adam
4 Alex
Lets use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results.
INSERT INTO class VALUES(5, 'Rahul');

COMMIT;

UPDATE class SET name = 'Abhijit' WHERE id = '5';

SAVEPOINT A;
 54

INSERT INTO class VALUES(6, 'Chris');

SAVEPOINT B;

INSERT INTO class VALUES(7, 'Bravo');

SAVEPOINT C;

SELECT * FROM class;

NOTE: SELECT statement is used to show the data stored in the table.

The resultant table will look like,

id name
1 Abhi
2 Adam
4 Alex
5 Abhijit
6 Chris
7 Bravo
Now use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the savepoint B.
ROLLBACK TO B;

SELECT * FROM class;

Now our class table will look like,

id name
1 Abhi
2 Adam
4 Alex
5 Abhijit
6 Chris
Now let's again use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the savepoint A
ROLLBACK TO A;

SELECT * FROM class;

Now the table will look like,

id name
1 Abhi
2 Adam
4 Alex
5 Abhijit
So now you know how the commands COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT works.
DATABASE CONNECTIVITY USING JDBC/ODBC
 55

 JDBC: establishes a connection with a database sends SQL statements processes the
results.
 ODBC is used between applications JDBC is used by Java programmers to connect to
databases With a small "bridge" program, you can use the JDBC interface to access
ODBC- accessible databases.
ODBC
 ODBC is (Open Database Connectivity): A standard or open application programming
interface (API) for accessing a database.
 By using ODBC statements in a program, you can access files in a number of different
databases, including Access, dBase, DB2, Excel, and Text.
 It allows programs to use SQL requests that will access databases without having to know
the proprietary interfaces to the databases.
 ODBC handles the SQL request and converts it into a request the individual database system
understands.
JDBC
 JDBC is: Java Database Connectivity is a Java API for connecting programs written in Java
to the data in relational databases
 Consists of a set of classes and interfaces written in the Java programming language.
 It provides a standard API for tool/database developers and makes it possible to write
database applications using a pure Java API.
 The standard defined by Sun Microsystems, allowing individual providers to implement and
extend the standard with their own JDBC drivers.
 establishes a connection with a database
 sends SQL statements
 processes the results.
JDBC vs ODBC
 ODBC is used between applications
 JDBC is used by Java programmers to connect to databases
 With a small "bridge" program, you can use the JDBC interface to access ODBC- accessible
databases.

 JDBC allows SQL-based database access for EJB persistence and for direct manipulation
from CORBA, DJB or other server objects .
 56

MODULE IV
 57

DBMS – Normalization

Functional Dependency
Functional dependency (FD) is a set of constraints between two attributes in a relation. Functional
dependency says that if two tuples have same values for attributes A1, A2,..., An, then those two
tuples must have to have same values for attributes B1, B2, ..., Bn.
Functional dependency is represented by an arrow sign (→) that is, X→Y, where X functionally
determines Y. The left-hand side attributes determine the values of attributes on the right-hand side.

Armstrong's Axioms
If F is a set of functional dependencies then the closure of F, denoted as F+, is the set of all
functional dependencies logically implied by F. Armstrong's Axioms are a set of rules, that when
applied repeatedly, generates a closure of functional dependencies.
 Reflexive rule − If alpha is a set of attributes and beta is_subset_of alpha, then alpha holds
beta.
 Augmentation rule − If a → b holds and y is attribute set, then ay → by also holds. That is
adding attributes in dependencies, does not change the basic dependencies.
 Transitivity rule − Same as transitive rule in algebra, if a → b holds and b → c holds, then
a → c also holds. a → b is called as a functionally that determines b.

Trivial Functional Dependency

 Trivial − If a functional dependency (FD) X → Y holds, where Y is a subset of X, then it is
called a trivial FD. Trivial FDs always hold.
 Non-trivial − If an FD X → Y holds, where Y is not a subset of X, then it is called a non-
trivial FD.
 Completely non-trivial − If an FD X → Y holds, where x intersect Y = Φ, it is said to be a
completely non-trivial FD.

Normalization
 atabase Normalization is a technique of organizing the data in the database. Normalization is
a systematic approach of decomposing tables to eliminate data redundancy(repetition) and
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undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion Anamolies.

 It is a multi-step process that puts data into tabular form, removing duplicated data from the
relation tables.
 Update anomalies − If data items are scattered and are not linked to each other properly,
then it could lead to strange situations. For example, when we try to update one data item
having its copies scattered over several places, a few instances get updated properly while a
few others are left with old values. Such instances leave the database in an inconsistent state.
 Deletion anomalies − We tried to delete a record, but parts of it was left undeleted because
of unawareness, the data is also saved somewhere else.
 Insert anomalies − We tried to insert data in a record that does not exist at all.
 Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring the database to a
consistent state. Normalization is used for mainly two purposes,
1. Eliminating reduntant(useless) data.
2. Ensuring data dependencies make sense i.e data is logically stored.

First Normal Form (1NF)

For a table to be in the First Normal Form, it should follow the following 4 rules:
1. It should only have single(atomic) valued attributes/columns.
2. Values stored in a column should be of the same domain
3. All the columns in a table should have unique names.
4. And the order in which data is stored, does not matter.
 First Normal Form is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule defines
that all the attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. The values in an atomic
domain are indivisible units.
 We re-arrange the relation (table) as below, to
convert it to First Normal Form.

 Each attribute must contain only a single value from its pre-defined domain.

Second Normal Form (2NF)

For a table to be in the Second Normal Form,
1. It should be in the First Normal form.
2. And, it should not have Partial Dependency.
 Prime attribute − An attribute, which is a part of the candidate-key, is known as a prime
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attribute.
 Non-prime attribute − An attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key, is said to be a
non-prime attribute.
 If we follow second normal form, then every non-prime attribute should be fully
functionally dependent on prime key attribute.
 That is, if X → A holds, then there should not be any proper subset Y of X, for which Y → A
also holds true i.e, there should not be any partial dependancy.

 We see here in Student_Project relation that the prime key attributes are Stu_ID and
Proj_ID.
 According to the rule, non-key attributes, i.e. Stu_Name and Proj_Name must be dependent
upon both and not on any of the prime key attribute individually.
 But we find that Stu_Name can be identified by Stu_ID and Proj_Name can be identified by
Proj_ID independently. This is called partial dependency, which is not allowed in Second

Normal Form.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

A table is said to be in the Third Normal Form when,
1. It is in the Second Normal form.
2. And, it doesn't have Transitive Dependency.
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and the following
must satisfy −
 No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.
 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then either −
 X is a superkey or,
 A is prime attribute.

 We find that in the above Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is the key and only prime key
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attribute. We find that City can be identified by Stu_ID as well as Zip itself. Neither Zip is a
superkey nor is City a prime attribute. Additionally, Stu_ID → Zip → City, so there exists
transitive dependency.
 To bring this relation into third normal form, we break the relation into two relations as
follows:

Boyce and Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Boyce and Codd Normal Form is a higher version of the Third Normal form. This form deals with
certain type of anomaly that is not handled by 3NF. A 3NF table which does not have multiple
overlapping candidate keys is said to be in BCNF. For a table to be in BCNF, following conditions
must be satisfied:
 R must be in 3rd Normal Form
 and, for each functional dependency ( X → Y ), X should be a super Key.
In the above image, Stu_ID is the super-key in the relation Student_Detail and Zip is the super-key
in the relation ZipCodes. So,
Stu_ID → Stu_Name, Zip
and
Zip → City
Which confirms that both the relations are in BCNF.
Example of BCNF in terms of relations:
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Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Rules for 4th Normal Form

For a table to satisfy the Fourth Normal Form, it should satisfy the following two conditions:
1. It should be in the Boyce-Codd Normal Form.
2. And, the table should not have any Multi-valued Dependency.
Let's try to understand what multi-valued dependency is in the next section.

What is Multi-valued Dependency?

A table is said to have multi-valued dependency, if the following conditions are true,
1. For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple value of B exists, then the table
may have multi-valued dependency.
2. Also, a table should have at-least 3 columns for it to have a multi-valued dependency.
3. And, for a relation R(A,B,C), if there is a multi-valued dependency between, A and B, then
B and C should be independent of each other.
If all these conditions are true for any relation(table), it is said to have multi-valued dependency.

Object-Oriented Database Management System (OODBMS)

 An object-oriented database management system (OODBMS) is a database management
system that supports the creation and modeling of data as objects.
 OODBMS also includes support for classes of objects and the inheritance of class
properties, and incorporates methods, subclasses and their objects.
 Most of the object databases also offer some kind of query language, permitting objects to
be found through a declarative programming approach.
 Also called an object database management system (ODMS)

Features of OODBMS
In OODBMS, every entity is considered as object and represented in a table. Similar objects are
classified to classes and subclasses and relationship between two object is maintained using concept
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of inverse reference.

Some of the features of OODBMS are as follows:

1. Complexity
OODBMS has the ability to represent the complex internal structure (of object) with multilevel
complexity.

2. Inheritance
Creating a new object from an existing object in such a way that new object inherits all
characteristics of an existing object.

3. Encapsulation
It is an data hiding concept in OOPL which binds the data and functions together which can
manipulate data and not visible to outside world.

4. Persistency
OODBMS allows to create persistent object (Object remains in memory even after execution). This
feature can automatically solve the problem of recovery and concurrency.

Challenges in ORDBMS implementation

During the implementation of ORDBMS, various challenges arise which need to be resolved. They
are:

1. Storage and accessibility of data

It is possible to define new types with new access to structures with the help of OODBMS. Hence,
it is important that the system must store ADT and structured objects efficiently along with the
provision of indexed access.
Challenge : Storage of large ADTs and structured objects.
Solution: As large ADTs need special storage, it is possible to store them on different locations on
the disk from the tuples that contain them. For e.g. BLOBs (Binary Large Object like images, audio
or any multimedia object.)
Use of flexible disk layout mechanisms can solve the storage problem of structured objects.

2. Query Processing

Challenge: Efficient flow of Query Processing and optimization is a difficult task.

Solution: By registering the user defined aggregation function, query processing becomes easier. It
requires three implementation steps - initialize, iterate and terminate.

3.Query Optimization

Challenge: New indexes and query processing techniques increase the options for query
optimization. But, the challenge is that the optimizer must know to handle and use the query
processing functionality properly.
Solution: While constructing a query plan, an optimizer must be familiar to the newly added index
structures

Introduction to Parallel Databases

Companies need to handle huge amount of data with high data transfer rate. The client server and
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centralized system is not much efficient. The need to improve the efficiency gave birth to the
concept of Parallel Databases.

Parallel database system improves performance of data processing using multiple resources in
parallel, like multiple CPU and disks are used parallely.

It also performs many parallelization operations like, data loading and query processing.

Goals of Parallel Databases

The concept of Parallel Database was built with a goal to:

Improve performance:
The performance of the system can be improved by connecting multiple CPU and disks in
parallel. Many small processors can also be connected in parallel.

Improve availability of data:

Data can be copied to multiple locations to improve the availability of data.
For example: if a module contains a relation (table in database) which is unavailable then it is
important to make it available from another module.

Improve reliability:
Reliability of system is improved with completeness, accuracy and availability of data.

Provide distributed access of data:

Companies having many branches in multiple cities can access data with the help of parallel
database system.

Architecture
There are three main architectures that have been proposed for parallel database management
systems :
 Shared Memory – Any CPU has access to both memory and disk through a fast
interconnect (e.g high-speed bus). This provides excellent load balance however scalability
and availability is limited.
 Shared Disk – This provides the CPU with its own memory but a shared disk. Meaning
there is no longer competition for shared memory but still competition for access to the
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shared disk. This provides better scale up and the load balancing is still acceptable.
Availability is better than shared memory but still limited as disk failure would mean entire
system failure.
 Share Nothing – Each processor has exclusive access to its main memory and disk unit, this
means all communication between CPUs is through a network connection. Shared nothing
has high availability and reliability; if one node fails the others are still able to run
independently. However load balance and skew become major issues with this architecture.