Unit 1

# Energy
Energy can be defined as the capacity of any object to do
work. The study of various forms of energy and its conversion
from one form to another is called energy science.
Energy sources may be classified in to the following
types:
1.Primary & Secondary energy sources - Primary energy
sources are those which are found or stored in nature. e.g.
coal, oil, natural gas and biomass like wood etc.

1. Secondary energy
sources
2. are usually
3. converted from
primary
4. energy sources.
5.
6. e.g. the electricity
sources converted
from
7. oil, natural gas or
coal
8. Secondary energy
sources
9. are usually
10. converted from
primary
11. energy sources.
12.
13. e.g. the electricity
sources converted
from
14. oil, natural gas or
coal
15. Secondary energy
sources
16. are usually
17. converted from
primary
18. energy sources.
19.
20. e.g. the electricity
sources converted
from
21. oil, natural gas or
coal
22. Secondary energy
sources
23. are usually
24. converted from
primary
 25. energy sources.
26.
27. e.g. the electricity
sources converted
from
28. oil, natural gas or
coal
Secondary energy sources are usually converted from
primary energy sources, e.g. the electricity sources
converted from oil, natural gas or coal.
2. Commercial & Non-commercial sources -
Commercial energy sources are those which are available in
the market and can purchased at a definite price from the
producing agencies, e.g. electricity, coal, oil etc.
Non-commercial energy sources are those which are not
available in commercial market for a price. These are also
called traditional fuels, e.g. agro waste, animal dung etc
3. Renewable (Non-Conventional) & Non-renewable
(Conventional) energy sources – Renewable resources
are the sources of energy which are inexhaustible i.e., can be
used to produce energy again and again. Ex sun, water etc.
(Non Renewable) Energy Sources : These are the sources of
energy which are exhaustible i.e., cannot be replaced if once
they are used.
# Renewable and Non Renewable Energy resources
Renewable Energy Resources
Definition
Renewable energy resources are energy sources that are
naturally replenished on a human timescale. Unlike non-
renewable resources, they are inexhaustible and can
regenerate through natural processes. These resources are
derived from phenomena like sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and
geothermal heat. Since they are continuously available, they
are considered sustainable for long-term energy needs.
For instance:
 Solar energy is generated from sunlight, which will
continue to be available as long as the sun exists.
 Wind energy harnesses the natural movement of air in
the atmosphere.
 Hydropower relies on the water cycle, driven by the sun
and gravity.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Definition
Non-renewable energy resources are energy sources that
exist in finite quantities and are not naturally replenished on
a human timescale. These resources form over millions of
years through geological and biological processes. Once
depleted, they cannot be replaced within a short period,
making them a limited and unsustainable energy source.

 Examples include fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural

gas, which are extracted from the Earth’s crust.

# Discuss the main features of various types of

renewable energy and non renewable energy
sources?
=> Renewable wala:
1. Solar Energy
 What is it?
Solar energy is energy derived from sunlight. It is
captured using solar panels (photovoltaic cells) or solar
thermal collectors to generate electricity or heat.
 Main Features:
o Unlimited Supply: The sun is a vast source of

energy, and its power can be harnessed as long as

it shines.
o Environmentally Friendly: Produces no greenhouse

gases or pollutants during energy generation.

o Versatility: Can be used for generating electricity,

heating water, and even powering vehicles.

2. Wind Energy
  What is it?
Wind energy is generated by capturing the kinetic energy of
moving air using wind turbines.
 Main Features:
 Clean and Renewable: Wind energy does not produce
any harmful emissions.
 Cost-Effective: Once turbines are installed, the
operational cost is minimal.
 Location-Specific: Requires areas with consistent and
strong wind flow, such as coastal regions or open plains.
3. Hydropower (Water Energy)
 What is it?
Hydropower harnesses the energy of flowing water,
usually from rivers or dams, to generate electricity.
 Main Features:
o Reliable and Consistent: Provides a steady source of
energy as long as the water cycle continues.
o High Energy Output: Large dams like the Bhakra
Nangal Dam in India can generate significant
amounts of electricity.
o Environmental Impact: While renewable, building
dams can disrupt local ecosystems, displace
communities, and affect aquatic life.
4. Biomass Energy
  What is it?
Biomass energy is derived from organic materials such
as wood, agricultural waste, and animal manure. It
involves burning these materials to produce heat or
converting them into biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel.
 Main Features:
o Sustainable: Plants and organic materials can be
regrown, ensuring a steady supply.
o Waste Reduction: Utilizes materials that would
otherwise go to waste.
o Challenges: Burning biomass produces carbon
dioxide and other pollutants, though less than fossil
fuels.
5. Geothermal Energy
 What is it?
Geothermal energy harnesses heat from beneath the
Earth's crust, often from hot springs or volcanic regions.
 Main Features:
o Consistent: Unlike solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy provides a constant supply of
energy, unaffected by weather.
o Low Emissions: Produces very few greenhouse
gases.
 o Location-Limited: Only available in regions with
geothermal activity, such as Iceland or parts of
India like Ladakh.
 Non renewable wala:
1. Coal
 What is it?
Coal is a black or brownish-black sedimentary rock
formed from the remains of ancient plants buried under
pressure and heat for millions of years.
 Main Features:
o High Energy Output: Coal is energy-dense and has
powered industries and electricity generation for
decades.
o Abundance: It is widely available in many countries,
including India.
o Environmental Impact: Burning coal produces a
significant amount of carbon dioxide, contributing
to global warming.
2. Oil (Petroleum)
 What is it?
Oil is a liquid fossil fuel extracted from underground
reservoirs. It is refined into fuels like gasoline, diesel, and
jet fuel.
 Main Features:
 o Widely Used: Petroleum is a major energy source
for transportation and industry.
o Pollution: Produces greenhouse gases and air
pollutants when burned.
o Extraction Risks: Drilling and transporting oil can
cause environmental disasters, such as oil spills in
oceans.
3. Natural Gas
 What is it?
Natural gas is a fossil fuel primarily composed of
methane. It is found alongside oil reserves and extracted
for use in homes, industries, and power plants.
 Main Features:
o Cleaner than Coal and Oil: Produces fewer
emissions compared to other fossil fuels.
o Versatile: Used for electricity generation, heating,
and as a raw material in industries.
4. Nuclear Energy
 What is it?
Nuclear energy is produced by splitting atoms (usually
uranium) in a process called nuclear fission. This process
releases vast amounts of energy.
 Main Features:
o High Energy Density: A small amount of uranium
can generate immense energy.
 o No Carbon Emissions: Does not produce
greenhouse gases during operation.
o Challenges: Produces radioactive waste that
requires safe, long-term storage. Nuclear power
plants also pose risks of catastrophic accidents,
such as Chernobyl or Fukushima.
# explain the importance of non conventional energy
sources in the context of global warming?
Ans . Global warming, driven by the accumulation of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane
(CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) in the atmosphere, is one of
the most pressing challenges of our time. These gases are
primarily released by burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas. Non-conventional energy sources, also known as
renewable energy sources, play a critical role in mitigating
global warming.
1. Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
 Clean Energy Production: Non-conventional energy
sources such as solar, wind, hydropower, and
geothermal produce energy without emitting carbon
dioxide or other harmful gases.
 Example: A solar power plant generates electricity
without burning fossil fuels, directly reducing CO₂
emissions compared to coal or gas-fired plants.
2. Sustainable Energy Supply
  Infinite Resources: Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy
sources do not deplete over time. They ensure a
sustainable and long-term energy supply without
environmental degradation.
 Example: Solar energy relies on sunlight, which is
available daily, while wind energy harnesses the power
of the wind.
3. Reduction in Air Pollution
 Cleaner Air: Burning fossil fuels releases not only CO₂
but also pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), and particulate matter that degrade air
quality. Renewable energy sources, however, produce
energy without emitting these pollutants.
 Impact: Improved air quality reduces health issues such
as respiratory diseases and heart problems, which are
aggravated by polluted air.
4. Economic and Environmental Benefits
 Job Creation: The renewable energy sector generates
employment in manufacturing, installation, and
maintenance of solar panels, wind turbines, and other
technologies.
 Conservation of Natural Resources: Reducing
dependence on fossil fuels prevents overextraction of
natural resources like coal and oil, preserving
ecosystems.
5. Mitigation of Climate Change Effects
  Temperature Control: By minimizing GHG emissions,
renewable energy helps stabilize the global temperature
increase.
 Example: Countries transitioning to wind and solar
energy experience a measurable reduction in their
carbon footprint.
 Impact: Slowing global warming prevents catastrophic
climate changes such as melting glaciers, more frequent
droughts, and intensified storms.
# Solar Energy
Sun is the fundamental source of all type of energy. The sun
releases the enormous amount of energy due to continuous
nuclear fusion reaction taking place in it.
Advantages of Solar Energy:
1. It is available in abundance and free of cost. It is
inexhaustible form of energy and will be sufficient to sustain
as far as we think of our existence.
2. It is free from pollution and having low operating and
maintenance cost.
3. No elaborated arrangements are needed for
transportation, storage or handling as in the case of fossil
fuels.
# Solar cells
Solar cells are the solid state electronic device used to
convert the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation directly
into direct current electricity. This conversion takes place
inside the cell. These individual solar cells are arranged
together in an array.
When sunlight strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked
loose. They move towards the treated front surface. An
electron unbalance is created between the front and back.
When the two surfaces are joined by a connector, like a wire,
an electric current flows between the negative and positive
sides.
Solar Cell Materials:
The solar cell is made of different material and silicon and
silicon is one used for nearly 90 % applications. The choice of
material depends on the band energy gap, efficiency and
cost.
Other commonly used Materials are Cadmium Telluride
(CdTe), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Zinc Telluride (ZnTe) etc.
The maximum efficiency of solar cell is achieved with the
band gap energy of 1. 12 eV-2.3 eV. The smaller the energy
gap, the large number of photon of solar spectrum will be
useful to produce the required energy for electrons to jump
the forbidden band gap.
# Principle of Solar Photovoltaic:
It is a field of solar energy utilization by which solar radiation
is converted into electrical energy using a device called
photovoltaic cell or solar cell. A solar cell is made up of a
semiconductor material like silicon (Si) or gallium arsenide
GaAs.
# Photovoltaic Effect:
The Photovoltaic Effect is the fundamental physical process
through which solar energy (light) is converted directly into
electrical energy in a photovoltaic (PV) cell. This phenomenon
forms the basis of solar photovoltaic technology.
# Describe the main elements of a PV system by
giving a suitable diagram?
Ans. A Photovoltaic (PV) system consists of several
interconnected components that work together to convert
sunlight into usable electricity. It includes several
interconnected components that work together seamlessly.
Here’s a detailed explanation of the main elements along
with their roles, features, and a schematic diagram:
1. Solar Panels (PV Modules)
Solar panels are composed of multiple photovoltaic (PV) cells
that convert sunlight into electricity via the photovoltaic
effect. The cells are typically made from silicon, a
semiconductor material capable of absorbing sunlight and
generating electricity through the photovoltaic effect.
Purpose:
 Acts as the energy generator by absorbing sunlight and
producing direct current (DC) electricity.
2. Charge Controller
 A device that regulates the flow of electricity between
the solar panels, batteries, and the load.
 Protects the battery from overcharging, over-
discharging, or short circuits.
Purpose:
 Ensures the battery operates safely and efficiently.
 Prevents damage to the system and extends battery life.
3. Battery
 A storage device that accumulates excess energy
generated by the solar panels.
  Provides power when solar energy is unavailable (e.g., at
night or during cloudy weather).
Purpose:
 Ensures a continuous power supply, especially for off-
grid systems.
 Batteries are typically lead-acid or lithium-ion, with
lithium-ion being more efficient and longer-lasting.
4. Inverter:
Converts DC electricity generated by the solar panels into AC
electricity, which is used by most electrical appliances and
the utility grid.
 Functions:
o Ensures compatibility with household appliances.
o Regulates the voltage and frequency of the output
current.
 Types of Inverters:
1. Stand-Alone Inverter:
2. Grid-Tied Inverter:
3. Hybrid Inverter:

5. Cables and Wiring

 Function:
o Connects the various components of the PV system,
allowing the flow of electricity.
 o Includes DC cables for solar panels and batteries,
and AC cables for the inverter output.
 Key Features:
o Must be appropriately sized to minimize energy
losses.
o Insulated to prevent short circuits and withstand
environmental conditions.
6. Grid Connection
A grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system links a solar
energy system to the local utility grid, enabling a two-way
exchange of electricity. This integration provides flexibility,
reduces energy costs, and ensures a reliable power supply,
especially when solar energy generation is insufficient or
excess energy is produced.

# Explain the mechanism of photoconduction in a PV

cell in detail?
Ans. Photoconduction in a Photovoltaic (PV) cell refers to the
process where exposure to light (photons) increases the
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor material, leading
to the generation of electrical current. This mechanism is the
foundation of solar energy conversion and operates through
the photovoltaic effect.

# working:
In a p-n junction, when sunlight falls on the surface of a
photovoltaic (PV) cell, the energy from the photons is
absorbed, exciting electrons in the semiconductor material.
This causes the free electrons in the n-side (negative side) to
move toward the p-side (positive side), while the holes in the
p-side move toward the n-side. This movement occurs to
balance the lack of electrons in the p-side and the abundance
of electrons in the n-side.
When sunlight is absorbed, the movement of electrons and
holes creates an electric field at the boundary of the p-n
junction. This field, directed from the n-side to the p-side,
arises due to the diffusion of charge carriers across the
junction and continues to grow until it reaches an equilibrium
voltage, known as the built-in potential (Vbi). This electric
field plays a crucial role in separating the electrons and holes,
preventing them from recombining and ensuring they
contribute to the flow of electricity.
When electrical contacts are made with the two
semiconductor layers and connected through an external
conductor, electrons flow from the n-side to the p-side
through the conductor, creating an electric current. This
current continues as long as sunlight generates new free
electrons and holes.
The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors forms
a photovoltaic (PV) cell or solar cell. Such cells produce direct
current (DC) electricity, which can be converted to alternating
current (AC) if needed.
# Types of Solar Cells:
According to type of crystal, the solar cells are of three
types:
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells (band gap 1.12 eV)
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells (band gap 1.12 eV),
3. Amorphous silicon cells (band gap 1.75 eV).
=> Monocrystalline Silicon Cell:
-> In monocrystalline silicon cells, silicon is doped with boron
to produce p type semiconductor.
-> Monocrystalline rods are extracted from silicon and then
sawed into thin plates or wafers.
-> The upper layer of the wafers is doped with phosphorous
to produce n type semiconductor. This becomes p-n junction.
-> Maximum efficiency is 24 %.
=> Polycrystalline Silicon Cell:
-> In polycrystalline cells, liquid silicon is poured into blocks
that are sawed into plates.
->During solidification of the material, crystal structures of
varying sizes are formed.
-> The size of crystallites mainly depends upon the cooling
condition. If the molten silicon is cooled very slowly, the
crystallites of larger size are obtained.
-> The silicon solar cells made from polycrystalline silicon are
low cost but low efficiency (maximum efficiency is 17.8 %).
=> Amorphous Silicon Cell:
-> If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate
material, this is so called amorphous or thin layer cell.
-> The layer thickness is less than l um, so production costs
are lower due to the low material costs.
-> However, the efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower
than that of the other cells. Because of this, they are
primarily used in low power equipment such as watches,
pocket calculators etc. Its Maximum efficiency is 13 %.

# Solar Cell Array

A solar cell array is a group of interconnected solar cells
working together to convert sunlight into electricity. Solar
cells are small, flat devices made of semiconductor materials,
like silicon, that use the photovoltaic effect to turn solar
energy into direct current (DC) electricity. Since a single solar
cell produces only a small amount of electricity, many cells
are combined to form an array capable of meeting larger
energy demands.
Main Components of a Solar Cell Array
1. Solar Cells:
o Basic units that convert sunlight into DC electricity.
o Made of semiconductor materials, they absorb
photons to excite electrons, creating an electric
current.
2. Modules or Panels:
o A set of interconnected solar cells arranged to form
a single unit.
o Modules provide higher output by combining
multiple cells.
3. Array:
 o Multiple solar panels are connected to form an
array to meet specific energy requirements.
o Arrays can be designed to generate power for
residential, commercial, or industrial purposes.
=> The array designs fall into two broad classes:

->Flat-Plate Arrays
Flat-plate arrays are a type of solar panel where solar cells are
fixed to a solid, semi-rigid surface using a strong adhesive.
This surface helps keep the solar cells protected and prevents
them from cracking. This design is based on photovoltaic
technology initially developed for space applications. Many
flat-plate arrays have been created in different sizes to
generate power for various uses.
->Concentrating Arrays
Concentrating arrays use special optical devices, like Fresnel
lenses, parabolic mirrors, or compound parabolic
concentrators (CPC), to focus sunlight onto photovoltaic cells.
These systems aim to capture more sunlight and make the
solar cells more efficient. This technology is relatively new
and still in development, so fewer concentrating arrays have
been built compared to flat-plate arrays.
=> Que. What are the various direct and indirect
applications of Solar Energy?
Ans.
=> Direct Applications of Solar Energy
Direct applications involve using solar energy immediately,
without converting it to another form of energy like
electricity or heat. These include:
1. Solar Water Heating:
o Application: Solar thermal collectors are used to
heat water for domestic, commercial, and industrial
use.
o Examples: Hot water systems for homes, swimming
pools, and industrial processes.
2. Solar Cooking:
o Application: Solar cookers use the sun’s heat to
cook food directly.
o Examples: Solar cookers for rural areas or off-grid
locations where traditional cooking fuels are scarce.
3. Solar Drying:
o Application: Solar dryers use sunlight to remove
moisture from various products like fruits,
vegetables, and herbs.
o Examples: Drying agricultural products in remote
areas or small-scale industries.
4. Solar Greenhouses:
 o Application: Greenhouses equipped with solar
energy systems help maintain temperature and
provide a controlled environment for growing
plants.
o Examples: Agricultural applications for growing
crops in regions with cold climates.

=> Indirect Applications of Solar Energy

Indirect applications involve converting solar energy into
another form of energy, such as electricity or thermal energy,
and then using it for various purposes. These include:
1. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems:
o Application: Solar panels convert sunlight into
electricity, which can be used for residential,
commercial, and industrial power needs.
o Examples: Residential solar systems, solar power
plants, and solar-powered vehicles.
2. Solar Thermal Power Plants:
o Application: Solar thermal systems concentrate
sunlight to generate heat, which is then used to
produce electricity via steam turbines or heat
engines.
o Examples: Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants
that generate large-scale electricity for the grid.
3. Solar Desalination:
 o Application: Solar energy is used to power
desalination processes, turning seawater into fresh
water.
o Examples: Solar-powered desalination plants in
areas with limited access to clean water.
4. Solar-Powered Ventilation:
o Application: Solar energy is used to power fans and
ventilation systems for cooling buildings or
industrial processes.
o Examples: Solar-powered ventilation systems in
homes, warehouses, and factories.
# Adv and limitation of solar Energy
1. Noiseless and cheap energy conversion system.
2. Environment friendly
3. Highly reliable.
4. Suitable for mobile loads such as cars, buses etc.
5. No fuel is required.
6. Having long life.
Limitations :
1. Higher initial cost.
2. Irregular supply of solar energy and do not generate power
during cloudy season.
3. Require storage batteries for supply power during night.
4. Efficiency is low.
5. Large area required for plant