General Physics

Ordinary Level 2023

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Scientific skills/method
Make observations Yes No

Question Results align with hypothesis

State hypothesis Draw conclusion

Plan investigation Interpret results

Identify variables Record results

Do investigation
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Variables
1. Independent Variable – What I Change: is plotted on
the x-axis (horizontal axis)
2. Dependent Variable – What I Observe: is plotted on
the y-axis (vertical axis)
3. Control Variables – What I Keep The Same: are
controlled to make the investigation fair.

Time is always placed on the x-axis since it

continues to move forward regardless of anything else.
The y-axis is also called the dependent axis because its
values depend on those of the x-axis

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 (dependent variable) Variables

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 Precision & Accuracy
Precision Accuracy

1. Precise measurements are 1. Accurate measurements

all close to one another. have an average close to
the true value.

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 Error and uncertainty
Error Uncertainty

1. Error is the difference 1. Uncertainty is the interval

between the measurement on either side of measured
and the true value value within which the true
value is expected to lie.

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 Types of errors
Random (indeterminate) errors Systematic (determinate errors)
• Occur often during repeated • An error that is repeated
experiments, causing the reading to in all readings taken.
vary above and below the true • Measurements may be
value. If values have to be precise, but not accurate
estimated, there is often a random
error.
• Measurements lack precision, but
cluster around accurate value.

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Example of errors and how to minimise them
Random error Systematic error
Sources of random errors: Sources of systematic errors:
• Parallax error • Inaccurately calibrated
• Careless in taking readings or instruments
record
• Wrong techniques • Zero error
• Reaction time e.g. timers • Using a stretched measuring
• People take turns taking readings. tape
• Rounding up or down How to reduce systematic errors:
• Incorrect unit conversions • Calibrate the instrument
How to reduce random errors: correctly
• repeat the experiment and take
the average • Avoid “zero error”.

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Anomalous/inconsistent results
An anomalous/inconsistent result is a result that doesn't
fit in with the pattern of the other results; 1.9 on the table
and point B on the graph. It is an anomaly.
Taking many repeat measurements or having a large sample
size to analyse will improve accuracy.
Table Graph

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 Length
Device/instrument Quantity measured
1. Metre rule/Ruler 1. Large lengths
2. Measuring tape 2. Larger lengths
3. Vernier callipers 3. Small distances e.g.
diameter of a test tube
4. Micrometer screw gauge 4. Smaller distances e.g.
diameter on a needle

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Measuring length
metre rule

ruler

measuring tape
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 Measuring small distances
Vernier calipers Dial calipers

Micrometer screw guage

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Determining volume of liquid
Measuring cylinder Notes

Measuring cylinders are used to

determine the
volume of a liquid.

NOTE: There are other pieces of

equipment for determining
volume of liquids.

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 Measuring time interval
Stopwatch (digital) Stop clock (analogue)

Wrist watches, analogue or digital, can be used

to measure time intervals.
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Terminology associated with pendulum
experiments
1. Oscillation is the repeated to-and-fro
swinging motion of a bob (mass) hung to a
fixed point by a string.
2. Amplitude – maximum displacement of a
bob from its rest/equilibrium position i.e.
vertical position.
3. Period - is the time taken to complete one
oscillation/cycle. The unit of Period (T) is the
second.

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 Pendulum

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Measuring the period of a pendulum
1. Set the pendulum into swing
2. Record the time for 10 oscillations

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

3. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 =
10

4. If you time for 20 oscillations, you divide by 20.

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Do the following variables affect the
period of a pendulum?
1.Carryout an experiment to identify the
variable(s) that affect(s) the period of a
pendulum.
a) amplitude
b) length
c) mass

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 Scalars and vectors
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
1. Has size (magnitude) only 1. Has size (magnitude) and
e.g. 100 m/s direction e.g. 100 m/s east
2. Examples: speed, mass, 2. Examples: velocity,
length, density, time, acceleration, weight
distance, volume, area, (force), momentum,
work (done). displacement, moment (of
force)

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Addition of vectors in one dimension

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Adding two vectors at right angles to
find the resultant by calculation
Use Pythagoras’ theorem

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 Adding two vectors that are NOT at right
angle by graphical method

1. Choose a suitable scale for the forces

2. Translate F1 and/or F2.
3. The vectors will be arranged head-tail-head
4. This will form a parallelogram, hence ‘pam’ rule.
5. The diagonal will be the resultant force
6. The direction is measured clockwise from North or
any reasonable description of the angle.
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Resolve forces
Use graphical method to resolve the two forces
and find the resultant.

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Position and reference point
1. Position is the distance and direction of an
object from a reference point (given point).
Position is relative to a reference point and can
be negative or positive. Refer to speed-time
graph.
2. Reference Point is the starting point you choose
to describe the location or position of an object.
Example: The position of Okahandja town is 70
km, North of WHK. WHK is the reference point.

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Distance and displacement
1. Distance is the length of the path/route
travelled without considering direction e.g.
200 m.
2. Displacement is a vector that has a
magnitude equal to the shortest distance
between the initial and final points. It has
direction from initial to the final point.

NOTE: The shortest distance between two

points is a straight line joining them.
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Distance and displacement

Moses runs round the track clockwise from A.

1. When he reaches C,
(a) draw his displacement
(b) calculate
(i) the distance he covered
(ii) his displacement
2. When he reaches A, find
(a) the distance he covered
(b) his displacement Joe Sasa
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Speed, average speed
1. Speed is the rate of change of distance or the
rate at which distance is changing e.g. 20 m/s.

𝒅
𝑽=
𝒕
NOTE: the symbol for speed is V.
2. Average speed:

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Distance-time graphs
Describe the motion represented by the graphs.

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Distance-time graph

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The distance-time graph of a long
distance runner is shown.
1. Calculate
(a) her speed between 09:00 and 11:00.
(b) how long she rested.
(c) her speed after rest up the point she turned
back
(d) her speed on the way back
2. Find
(a) the total distance covered
(b) her average speed
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Velocity
Velocity is defined as:
• rate of change of distance in a given direction or
• rate of change of displacement or
• speed in a given direction.
Velocity is a vector quantity, therefore, can be
negative or positive depending on the direction.

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Average and instantaneous velocity
Average velocity is the change in position or displacement in a
certain time interval in which the displacement occurs.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object at any instant
of moment (particular moment) i.e. very short time interval
(almost zero).
NOTE: When you look at the speedometer of a car, what you see is
instantaneous velocity.

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 Similarities
Speed Velocity
1. Measured by change of 1. Measured by change of
position of an object position of an object
2. For a straight line motion, 2. For a straight line motion,
the speed and velocity of the speed and velocity of an
an object are the same object are the same (since
(since distance and distance and displacement
displacement will be the will be the same).
same).

Difference
1. Scalar quantity: has size only 1. Vector quantity: has size
and direction
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 Interpreting a Velocity-Time graph

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Speed-time graph

W X

Z
V

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Interpreting a speed-time graph
1. Describe the motion of the car:
a) at V
b) during VW
c) during WX
d) during XY
e) during YZ
f) at Z

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 2. Use the graph to calculate the acceleration
during:
a) VW
b) XY
c) WX
d) YZ

3. Calculate
a) the distances A, B, C, & D
b) the total distance covered

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Equations of motion for uniform/
constant acceleration
1. v = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1
2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 2
3. 𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑉+𝑢
4. 𝑠 = (
2
)𝑡

Where:
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
s = displacement
t = time
a = acceleration
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Drawing and interpreting the velocity-
time graph
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates to 40 m/s
in 2 s. It then maintains a constant velocity for 4s
before the driver applies the brakes and
decelerates to rest in 6 seconds.
a) Sketch the velocity-time graph
b) Use your graph to calculate the:
(i) acceleration
(ii) deceleration
(iii) total distance covered

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2. A car accelerates from 15 m/s in 40m/s in 3 s.
Calculate the
(a) acceleration (b) distance travelled
3. A car accelerates from rest for 20 s with an
acceleration of 1.5 m/s2. It then travels at a
constant velocity for 2 minutes before slowing
down with a uniform deceleration to rest in a
further 10 s. Sketch a velocity-time graph of the
motion and find:
a) the maximum velocity
b) the total distance travelled and
c) he acceleration while slowing down.
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 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity in m/s2.
1. Whenever a body changes velocity, it is
accelerating i.e. increase or decrease in velocity;
or changes direction while the speed is constant,
it is accelerating.
2. Can be positive (increase in velocity) or negative
(decrease in velocity) also called deceleration.

NOTE: If a car is travelling in a circular path at 100

m/s, its speed is constant (not changing) while its
velocity is constantly changing due to changing
direction i.e. the car is accelerating!
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 Acceleration
Non-constant/non-uniform
Constant/uniform acceleration acceleration

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Acceleration due to gravity or
acceleration of free fall
The acceleration of free fall or acceleration due
to gravity (g) for all objects near the surface of
the Earth is constant (does not change).
The value of g is about 9.8 m/s2 . To make
calculations easier, g taken as approximately 10
m/s2.

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Equations of motion for involving
acceleration due to gravity
1. 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
1
2. ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
3. 𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔ℎ
Where:
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
s = displacement, is replaced by h for height.
t = time
a = acceleration, is replaced by g for acceleration
due to gravity, which is constant i.e. 10 m/s2.
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Using equations of motion for freely
bodies
Assume that air resistance is negligible
1. A rock is released 115 m from a cliff. Calculate how
long it takes the hit the ground.
2. A basketball is tossed upwards with a velocity of 5.0
m/s. Calculate the maximum height reached by the
basketball.
3. An object dropped from a wall takes 3.85 s to reach
the ground. Calculate the
(a) height of the wall.
(b) velocity of the object just before it hits the
ground
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Effects of forces
Force is the rate of change of momentum or simply
a push or pull. Its unit is the Newton (N).
Effects of forces on objects:
1. Change the shape/size of an object
2. Newton’s first law of motion states that, a body
will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external
force.
This means that a force can cause an object to
decelerate/accelerate/stop moving/change
direction of motion
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Forces in everyday life
FORCE AGENT APPLYING THE OBJECT TO WHICH THE
FORCE FORCE IS APPLIED
electrical charges (positive and hair/charged and neutral
negative) objects
magnetic magnets magnetic materials/other
magnets
gravitational Objects with mass any object that has mass
weight earth any object
tension tow-trucks rope, cable, chain,
friction moving objects surfaces in contact
air resistance air moving object

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Resultant of two or more forces acting along
the same line

1. thrust > drag → acceleration

2. thrust = drag → constant velocity (zero acceleration)
3. thrust < drag → deceleration
3. lift > weight → ascend
4. lift < weight → descend
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Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring
is directly proportional the force applied,
provided that it does not exceed the elastic limit.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
Note: the gradient of the graph gives the spring
constant which is unique for different materials.
𝐹
𝑘=
𝑥

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Verifying Hooke’s law
Measuring extension when loads Force-extension graph, if elastic
are added limit is exceeded

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Limit of proportionality/elastic limit
1. Limit of proportionality/elastic limit of a
spring is the point at which when stretched
further, the spring is distorted permanently/
does not go back to its original shape and
size.
2. Springs of different materials have their own
elastic limits. This is expressed as the spring
constant, k.

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The relationship between force, mass
and acceleration
Acceleration is directly proportional to force but
inversely proportional to mass.
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹
𝑎∝
𝑚
Rearranging gives: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 1
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
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Using F = ma
1. A force of 9.4 N is applied to a mass of 4.1 kg.
Calculate the acceleration of the mass.
2. Calculate the force required to accelerate 5.4
kg at 3.5 m/s2.
3. A force of 22 N causes an object to accelerate
at 1.9 m/s2. Calculate the mass of the object.
4. Calculate the acceleration of a 40 g mass
when a force of 7.0 N is applied to it.

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Momentum
1. The momentum of a body is the product of
its mass and velocity.
2. Momentum is a vector quantity.
3. Two factors that makes it difficult to stop a
moving object:
a) its mass
b) its velocity

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (𝑘𝑔 𝑚Τ𝑠)
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Change in momentum
When the velocity of a body changes, the change
in momentum is represented by:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
= 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

∆𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) (𝑘𝑔 𝑚Τ𝑠)

where ∆p = change in momentum

v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, and
m = mass
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Calculating change in momentum
A 3000 kg truck increases its velocity from 50
m/s to 100 m/s.
Calculate its change in momentum.

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Momentum and inertia
1. Inertia is the property of a matter that
resists change in motion.
2. Momentum is a way of comparing the
motion of bodies.
3. A body will always posses inertia even
though it is motionless, while its
momentum will be zero.
Example:
A 3- ton truck is travelling at 100 km/h.
Calculate its momentum.
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Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion states that force
is the rate of change of momentum.

Force = rate of change of momentum:

𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
𝐹=
∆𝑡

(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑏𝑢𝑡 =𝑎
∆𝑡

∴ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
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Change in momentum
∆𝑝 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐹=
∆𝑡
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑚 v − 𝑢 = ∆𝑝
∆𝑝 = 𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒

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Calculations on change in momentum
A block of mass 2 kg is pushed along a table with
a constant force of 5 N. When it is pushed the
force increases to 9 N.
Calculate: the resultant force
1. resultant force.
2. the acceleration

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Change in momentum (Impulse)

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 Importance of impulse in real life

Crumple zones

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Impulse of force
1. 𝑭∆𝒕 is the impulse of the force which causes
the change in velocity of the body and is
equal to change in momentum of the body.
𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 (𝑁𝑠)
2. The change in momentum of a body
therefore, depends on the force F acting on
the body as well as the time (∆𝑡) during
which the force acts.

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 Calculations
1. Calculate how long it takes a force of 200 N
acting on an object of mass 400 kg to change its
velocity from 4 m/s to 8 m/s in the same
direction.
2. A cricket ball of mass 0.2 kg is moving at a
velocity of 30m/s.
Calculate:
a) the average force exerted by the
wicketkeeper, if he stops the ball in 0.3 s
b) the impulse
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Principle of conservation of momentum
When two or more objects interact, their total
momentum remains constant, provided that no
external resultant force is acting on them.
OR
In an isolated system, the total momentum before
collision equals the total momentum after collision
when no external resultant force is applied.

This principle forms the basis for the formula used

in calculations involving elastic or inelastic
collisions.
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Elastic collision
1. Elastic collision (bounce off collisions):
a) the colliding objects do not undergo deformities
b) the total kinetic energy of the objects before the
collision equals the total kinetic energy after the
collision i.e. kinetic energy is conserved.
2. The colliding objects therefore bounce off each
other. In atomic physics, the collision of subatomic
and atomic particles is elastic.
3. The collision between two billiard balls (similar to
marbles or pool balls) is elastic.

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 Calculations
A 16.0 kg canoe moving to the left at 12.5 m/s makes
an elastic head-on collision with a 14.0 kg raft moving
to the right at 16.0 m/s.

After collision, the raft moves to the left at 14.4 m/s.

Disregard the effects of water.

Find the velocity of the canoe after the collision.

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 Inelastic collision
1. Inelastic collision (no bounce collisions):
a) the colliding objects are deformed
b) the total kinetic energy before collision is
greater than the total kinetic energy after
collision i.e. kinetic energy is not conserved.
2. The kinetic energy is lost in the form of heat
and sound e.g. when objects stick to each other
after collision/throwing putty on the concrete
wall.

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Inelastic collision
1. Inelastic collision (no bounce collisions):
a) the colliding objects are deformed
b) the total kinetic energy before collision is
greater than the total kinetic energy after
collision i.e. kinetic energy is not
conserved.
2. The kinetic energy is lost in form of heat and
sound e.g. when objects stick to each other
after collision/throwing putty on the
concrete wall.
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Calculations
A trolley of mass 2 kg travels eastward with a
velocity of 10m/s. It collides head-on with
another trolley of mass 4 kg moving westward
with a velocity of 20 m/s. They stick together
on impact. Calculate their velocity and
direction after collision.

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Mass and weight
1. Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
2. Mass does not change whether you are on the
Earth or moon.
3. Weight is the force of gravity acting on an
object. The gravitational field strength, g, is
10N/kg equal to the gravitational acceleration
which is 10 m/s2 near the surface of the Earth.
4. Weight changes. Objects have more weight on
Earth than on the moon.
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Mass and weight
mass weight
1. Measured in kilograms (kg) 1. Measured in Newtons (N)
2. A beam/electronic balance because it is a force.
is the instrument used to 2. A spring balance is the
measure mass instrument used to
3. Mass stays the same measure weight
wherever you are 3. Weight changes depending
on where you are.

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Inertia
1. Inertia is the property of mass that ‘resists’
change in motion- this is from Newton’s First
Law of motion.
2. It is more difficult to set a heavy truck into
motion than a light sedan.
3. It is more difficult to stop a heavy truck when in
motion than a light sedan.
4. Seat belts are important to prevent passengers
from being thrown out of the car when it stops
quickly e.g. in a collision.
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Calculating weight from mass
Penny has a mass of 34 kg. Calculate her weight.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑤 =𝑚×𝑔
= 34 𝑘𝑔 × 10 𝑁Τ𝑘𝑔
= 340 𝑁

NOTE: mass should always be changed to kg before

using.

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Calculating mass from weight
Calculate the mass of a 2310 N concrete block.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑤 2310 𝑁
𝑚= =
𝑔 10𝑁Τ𝑘𝑔
= 231 𝑘𝑔

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 75

Freely falling body with air resistance
(drag) graph B and terminal velocity

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 76

 Velocity-time graphs of bodies falling
(A) without and (B) with air resistance

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 77

Density
Density is mass per unit volume of a substance.
The unit of density is the kg/m3, g/cm3.
The SI unit of density is the kg/m3.
Formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣

ρ – ‘rho’ is a Greek letter

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 78
Calculations on density
1. Calculate the density of a substance of
mass 100 g and volume 10 cm3 in:
a) g/cm3 b) kg/m3

2. The density of gold is 19 g/cm3.

Find the volume of 38 g of gold.

3. Calculate the mass of 5m3 of cement of

density 3000 kg/m3.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 79

Determining the density of a liquid
Method 1
1. Place the empty measuring cylinder on an
electronic balance and take mass reading,
m1.
2. Pour some liquid in the measuring cylinder
and take the volume reading, v.
3. Place the cylinder + liquid on an electronic
balance and take the mass reading m2.
• 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝑚2 −𝑚1
• 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 80
Determining the density of a liquid
Method 2
1. Place an empty measuring cylinder on an
electronic balance and tare it i.e. set it to zero
reading.
2. Pour some liquid in the measuring cylinder
and take the volume reading, V, and the
mass, m, directly from the electronic balance.
3. Calculate density using the formula:
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 81
Determining the density of a regularly
shaped solid
1. Identify the shape of the solid e.g. Cylinder,
cube, cuboid, cone, etc.
2. Use the formula for finding the volume of the
shape e.g. 𝑉 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ for cuboid
3. Find the mass of the solid, m, from electronic
balance
𝑚
4. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 82

Determining the density of irregularly
shaped solid by displacement method
Using a displacement can
1. Measure the mass of the solid, m, using an
electronic balance
2. Fill a displacement (eureka) can with water
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder under the
spout of the can
4. Tie the solid with a string and gently lower it into
the eureka can until it is fully submerged.
5. The volume of water that flows into the measuring
cylinder equals the volume of the solid, V.
𝑚
6. 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉
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Determining the density of irregularly
shaped solid by displacement can

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 84

Determining the density of irregularly
shaped solid by displacement method
Using a measuring cylinder

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 85

1. Place the irregularly shaped solid on an
electronic balance and take the mass reading, m.
2. Pour some water into a measuring cylinder and
take the volume reading, V1.
3. Tie a thin string around the irregularly shaped
solid and gently lower it into the measuring
cylinder of water until fully submerged.
4. Take the volume reading, V2
5. Volume of solid = V2 – V1
m
6. Density of solid =
(v2 – v1)

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 86

Floating and sinking
Whether a substance will float or sink in a given
liquid depends on their densities.
An object sinks in a liquid of lower density than its
own.
Example: the density of water is 1.0 g/cm3 while a
piece of glass has a density of 2.5 g/cm3. This
means glass is denser, therefore, sinks in water.
Wood of density 0.5 g/cm3 will float on water.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 87

Anomalous/unusual /abnormal
expansion of water

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 88

Anomalous/unusual /abnormal
expansion of water
1. When water is cooled to 4°C it contracts (density
increases).
2. Between 4°C and 0°C it expands (density
decreases)
3. Therefore water has maximum density at 4°C.
4. This unusual expansion is important for the
survival of aquatic life. Even when the surface of
the water is frozen, there is still water at 4°C
underneath the ice.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 89
Moments
The moment of a force is the measure of its turning
effects. Moment is a vector quantity. The distance
involved is perpendicular to the force.

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝜏 = 𝐹𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑠 (𝑁𝑚)
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 90
Equilibrium conditions
1. A system is in equilibrium when:
a) the resultant force on the object is zero. If
there is resultant force on the object it will
accelerate.
b) there is no net moment on the body. If
there is a net moment the body will start
to rotate.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 91

Expressions for equilibrium conditions
1. Sum of clockwise moments = sum of
anticlockwise moments
or
2. Clockwise moments + anticlockwise
moments = zero
or
3. Sum of forces in one direction = sum of
forces in the opposite direction
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 92
Calculating moments
1. The system shown is in equilibrium.

Write the expression for:

(a) Clockwise moment
(b) Anticlockwise moment
(c) Hence calculate the value of the force F.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 93
2. The system shown is in equilibrium.
Calculate F2

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 94

Moments in everyday life

1. Centre of mass (centre of gravity) is the point in

an object where its mass is concentrated.
2. For regular solids with uniform density, this
point coincides with their geometrical centre
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 95
Centre of mass of a plane lamina

To determine the centre of mass of a plane lamina:

1. make three holes along the edge of the lamina
2. suspend the lamina about each of the holes in turn,
ensuring that the lamina is allowed to rotate freely
3. suspend a plumb line from each hole in turn and lines
drawn to represent them
4. where all lines cross is the centre of mass

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 96

Centre of mass and stability
1. An object is stable if when displaced slightly
it reverts to its original position
2. An object will revert to its original position if
the vertical line through its centre of mass
falls within its base

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 97

How to increase the stability of objects
1. Stability of objects depends on:
a) The position of the centre of mass
b) The size of the base area
2. Objects can be made more stable by:
a) lowering the centre of mass e.g. racing
cars, bunsen burner
b) increase the base area e.g. racing cars,
bunsen burner

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 98

 Stability
Family car Racing car

Choose the more stable car. Explain your choice.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 99

Double decker bus

With reference to stability, explain why

passengers should fill the lower decker before
the upper deck.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 100
 Friction
Friction is a contact force due to rubbing surfaces.
Friction depends on the texture of surfaces that
are rubbing against each other. The rougher the
surfaces, the greater the friction, provided that the
size of the normal forces are constant.

Effects of friction:
1. can cause ‘tear’ and ‘wear’
2. can cause overheating or fire
3. can slow down objects

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 101

How to reduce friction

Streamlining

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 102

Friction in everyday life
Advantages Disadvantages
Makes it possible to walk Can cause ‘tear’ and ‘wear’
to objects that are rubbing
against each other
Makes it possible to hold a Can cause overheating or
pen and write fire
Makes it possible for cars Wastes energy if form of
or bicycles to stop when heat, sound
brakes are applied
Makes it possible to light a
match
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 103
Energy, work and power
Major sources of energy and alternative sources
of energy
Major sources of energy
1. Chemical/fuel energy (a regrouping of atoms):
• when burnt, releases energy e.g. fossil fuels, wood
• chemical reactions release energy e.g. car
battery
2. Energy from water (hydroelectric, waves, tides):
• falling water can drive turbines –hydroelectric
• huge rise and fall of sea water can drive turbines-
tides
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 104
3. Geothermal energy:
• Water is heated by pumping it through hot rocks
in the Earth. Hot springs occur naturally.
4. Nuclear energy (nuclear fission of heavy atoms):
• Heavy unstable nuclei of radioactive elements, like
uranium, split to form stable nuclei with release of
heat energy.
5. Solar energy (nuclear fusion in the sun):
• Nuclear fusion reactions of deuterium and tritium
produces vast amount of heat energy to produce
thermal and photovoltaic energy.
6. Wind energy:
• Wind turns the blades, which turn turbines of
generators.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 105
 Energy sources
Energy source Advantages Disadvantages Finite/renewable

Chemical/fuel Portable/easy to Pollute/acid rain Finite

energy use
Potential energy Clean/flexible Disturb river habitats & fish
from water population/ forces relocation of
people and animals/flooding Renewable
when dams are erected
Geothermal Clean/self-refilling High initial cost/limited number Renewable
energy of suitable places
More reliable& Expensive to setup/ generate
Nuclear energy efficient than nuclear waste/risk of explosions Finite
fossil fuels
Clean/abundant High initial cost/rely on climate
Solar energy e.g. in or weather which are Renewable
Namibia/low unpredictable/requires large
maintenance space
Clean/produces Requires large area to build wind
Wind energy relatively large turbines Renewable
4/26/2023 amount of energy Joe Sasa 106
Basic solar photovoltaic system

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 107

 How a photovoltaic (PV) system works
1. Light is absorbed by the semiconductor and knocks
electrons loose
2. Loose electrons flow, creating an electrical current
3. The electrical current is captured and transferred to
wires
4. The PV system can supply electrical energy for
household use, and to the main grid.
Energy changes in a photovoltaic system
Solar energy → electrical energy

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 108

Basic solar water heater

1. Copper
collects
solar heat

Energy changes in a solar water heater

Solar energy → thermal energy
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 109
Basic wind energy systems

Energy changes in wind energy system

Kinetic → Kinetic → Electrical
(wind turbines) (generator) →
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 110
Distinction between finite (non-renewable)
and renewable energy sources
Finite (non-renewable) energy Renewable energy sources
sources

• They cannot be replaced • They are constantly replaced at

once they are used up. a higher rate than they get
• Examples: fossil fuels (oil, used up.
coal), nuclear. • Examples: solar, wind,
geothermal, hydroelectricity.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 111

 Source of nuclear energy
The nuclei of radioactive isotopes such as uranium-
235 can split to release large amount of heat.
• The heat turns the water in the power station
into gas.
• The gas drives turbines to generate electricity

Energy conversions:
Nuclear → heat → kinetic →electrical

Problems: nuclear waste (radiation) can harm

the environment
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 112
 Uses of renewable energy sources
Renewable energy source Use
Hydroelectric/solar/wind/geothermal Electricity generation
Solar/Geothermal Heating
Wind/solar Water pumping
Solar Greenhouses
Solar Refrigeration
solar Air conditioning

Namibia has great solar energy potential, being the

second highest long term solar irradiance in the
world after Chile.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 113
Forms of energy
1. Potential energy (stored energy)
a) gravitational potential energy (GPE): energy
due to height (energy of position) e.g. water
in a mountain reservoir.
b) strain/elastic potential energy: energy
stored in stretched rubber bands,
compressed spring, stretched bow.
c) chemical (potential) energy: energy stored
in food, batteries, fossil fuels, wood.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 114

Other forms of energy
2. Kinetic energy (KE): energy due to motion
(movement)
3. Electrical energy
4. Sound energy
5. Heat energy
6. Light energy

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 115

 The law of conservation of energy
The law of conservation of energy states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed but
changed/converted from one form to another
or
The law of conservation of energy states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed
but converted from one form to another.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 116

Energy conversions
Check handout for energy conversions!
1. Describe the energy conversions in a
swinging pendulum

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 117

Energy conservation

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 118

Simple machines - making the effort
easier
Levers, gears and pulleys are make the effort
easier (work done stays the same but the force
required becomes less).

To reduce effort (force) in levers:

Class I: increase distance between pivot and effort

Class II: increase distance between load and effort
Class III: increase distance between load and effort

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 119

Levers

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 120

Gears

If gear B is the driver, when it turns once, gear A will

turn 3 times. This applies to bicycles as well.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 121
Pulleys

If you increase the distance that the effort force moves

relative to the distance the weight moves, a pulley can
reduce the effort force needed. movable pulleys reduce
the effort force.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 122
Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of the useful energy output to
the total energy input. Systems are never 100 %
efficient. Some energy can wasted as heat, sound,
friction, etc.
Efficiency can be expressed as a percentage,
decimal or vulgar fraction.

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
or
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 123

Calculating efficiency
Sankey diagrams are also used to show energy transfers. In these
diagrams, the size of the arrows is important, as it shows the
amount of energy.

The Sankey diagram above is for an electric lamp. As you can see,
the total amount of energy given out by the lamp is 100 J. Of the
total 100 J, 10 J is transferred as light energy (which is the transfer
that is useful to us) and 90 J is transferred as thermal energy (which
is the transfer that is not useful to us i.e. wasted). Calculate the
efficiency of the electric lamp.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 124
Work and energy
1. Energy is the ability to do work. The Joule (J)
is the unit of energy.
2. Work is done when a force moves an object
in the direction of the force. For you to do
work, you must have energy. Therefore, the
unit of work done is also the Joule.
3. Work is a scalar quantity. The distance
involved is in the same direction as the force.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 (𝑁𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒)
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 125
Calculating work done
Maria exerts 540 N force to push a box over 4 m.
1. Calculate the work done.
2. State how much energy was transferred by
pushing the box over 4 m.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 126

Calculating work done involving gravity
1. A 250 g rock falls from 5 m from a cliff.
a) Calculate its GPE at 5 m.
b) State its kinetic energy just before it hits the
ground.
c) Calculate the velocity just before it hits the
ground
2. A learner of mass 43 kg climbs 5 steps, each
30.5 cm long and 15.9 cm high. Calculate the
work done.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 127

Calculating kinetic energy
1
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
2
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝐸 = 0.5𝑚𝑣 2
2
1. A rock of mass 4 kg rolls over a cliff and reaches
the beach below with a velocity of 20 m/s.
Calculate:
a) the kinetic energy when it reaches the beach.
b) the height of the cliff.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 128

Power
Power is the speed of doing work/the rate of doing
work. The Watt is the unit of power.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑) 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑜𝑟
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐸 𝑊
𝑃= 𝑜𝑟
𝑡 𝑡

NOTE: Time must be in seconds

Martha transfers 730 J when pushing a 174 N box over

4.2 m in 2 s. Calculate the power of her muscles.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 129

Pressure
Pressure is perpendicular force acting on a unit area.
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃 =
𝐴
Pressure is measured in N/m2 or pascal (Pa). Due to the
smallness of the pascal, a kilopascal (kPa) will be used.

Relationship between pressure and force:

• Directly proportional; increasing force increases the
pressure.
Relationship between pressure and area:
• Inversely proportional; decreasing area increases the
pressure
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 130
Calculating pressure
1. Victoria pushes a drawing pin into a notice
board. She uses 15 N force. The area of the
head of the pin is 0.60 cm2.

Calculate the pressure on the head of the pin:

a) in N/cm2 b) in Pascals
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 131
Pressure beneath the surface of a
liquid.
1. Pressure in liquids depends on:
a) Depth

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 132

(b) Pressure depends on density

• Pressure in a liquid is
directly proportional to
density.
• Keeping the height the
same, more pressure is
observed in water than
in oil.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 133

Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic jack Hydraulic jack & brakes
• Hydraulic systems are
force multipliers
• Pressure in a liquid is
equal in all directions.
𝐹1 𝐹2
• 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 ⇒ =
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴2 > 𝐴1 ⇒ 𝐹2 > 𝐹1

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 134

The figure shows part of a hydraulic jack
used in lifting heavier objects.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 135

(a) (i) Force F1 is applied to piston A creating pressure in
the oil. The cross sectional area of piston A is 2.5 cm2.
Calculate the pressure produced by the force F1.
Show your working and give a unit. [3]

(ii) The pressure is transmitted through the oil to piston

B. Explain why the force F2 is larger than F1 [1]

Wind
Wind is the flow of air. Wind blows from high-
pressure systems to low-pressure systems. The
greater the difference between the pressures, the
faster the wind will blow.
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 136
Manometer
A manometer is an instrument used to measure
fluid pressure i.e. gas or liquid pressure.

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 137

 How a manometer works
1. In Figure (a) atmospheric pressure acts equally
on liquid surfaces and the levels are the same.
2. If one side is connected to a gas supply, Figure
(b), the gas exerts a pressure on the surface A
and level B rises until:
• Pressure at C = atmospheric pressure + pressure
due to liquid column BC
• Pressure of liquid column BC is calculated as
follows:
• Gas pressure = PA + Pressure due to h of liquid
𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 138
Deriving the formula: 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
Since pressure depends on density and depth/height,
the pressure can be expressed in terms of density and
height as:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃 = but 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴
= 𝑚𝑔
and 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌𝑉

𝑚 ×𝑔 𝜌× 𝑉×𝑔
𝑃= = but 𝑉 = 𝐴 × ℎ
𝐴 𝐴

𝜌×𝐴×ℎ×𝑔
𝑃= = 𝜌ℎ𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
𝐴
∴ 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 139
The diagram shows a monometer used to measure gas
pressure. Calculate the gas pressure.

The height of the water column shown is 0.21 m.

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and g = 10 N/kg
a) Calculate the pressure due to the column of water, h =
0.21 m. Show your working.
b) If the atmospheric pressure is 102900 N/m2.
Calculate the actual pressure
4/26/2023 Joe Sasa
of the gas. 140
 Atmospheric pressure and altitude
1. Atmospheric pressure decreases with the
increase in altitude. The density of air
particles decreases because the number of
air particles decreases.
2. Atmospheric pressure is greatest at sea level:
1 atmosphere = 760mm Hg = 101 325 Pa
(1.01235 kPa)

4/26/2023 Joe Sasa 141