Language: What is Language?

Language is essentially for communication. There are 2 modes viz. SPEECH and WRITING,
apart from facial expressions, gestures like smile and nod. These are tools to translate ideas. In
speech, sound waves are used to communicate. In writing, words are used which are
SYMBOLIC representations.
Language is a term, which due to its range of applications, has prompted innumerable
definitions. Some of these focus on the general concept of ‘language’, others on more specific
aspects of ‘a language’ and yet others on its more formal features like phonology, grammar and
semantics. Then there are also those which emphasize on its range of functions or those which
stress the differences between language and other forms of human and animal communication.
The range of definitions given below amply illustrates this point.
(Sapir1911).
A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society
interact in terms of their total culture (Trager1949).
A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed of a
finite set of elements. (Chomsky1957).
Language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means
of habitually used oral - auditory arbitrary symbols (Hall1964).
Audible, articulate meaningful sounds as produced by the action of the vocal organs. (Webster’s
Third New International Dictionary, Vol.2, 1971).
Language is the most sophisticated and versatile means available to human beings for the
communication of meaning (Brown1984).
Language is patterned system of arbitrary sound signals, characterized by structure dependence,
creativity, displacement, duality, and cultural transmission (Aitchison1987).
Characteristics of Language
In order to understand a term like “life”, one has to talk of the properties or characteristics of
living beings (e.g. motion, reproduction, respiration, growth, power of self-healing, excretion,
nutrition, mortality, etc. etc.). Similarly, the term “language” can be understood better in terms of
its characteristics.
Properties of language are features which are unlikely to be found in the communication systems
of other living creatures.
 i. Displacement
Most animals can communicate about things in the immediate environment only. A bird utters its
danger cry only when danger is present. It cannot give information about danger in the past or
future. Human language, by contrast can communicate about things that are absent as easily as
about things that are present. This feature of the human language is called displacement. It
allows the users of language to talk about events and things not present in the immediate
environment. Animal communication is generally considered to lack this property. We can find it
in the communication of honey bees but it is rather limited. This feature of language allows the
human to create fiction and to describe possible future worlds.
ii. Productivity (Creativity)
Most animals have a very limited number of messages they can send or receive. This type of
limitation is not found in human language. Language users manipulate their linguistic resources
to produce new expressions and new sentences. This property of human language is known as
productivity or creativity. It is an aspect of language which is linked to the fact that the potential
number of utterances in any human language is infinite. Productivity = speaker´s ability to
combine the basic linguistic units. All animal signals, on the other hand, have a feature called
fixed reference that means each signal is fixed as relating to a particular object or occasion.
iii. Arbitraness
It is generally the case that there is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its
meaning. The form of word CAT has no natural relationship with that animal. The property of
linguistic signs is their arbitrary relationship with the objects they are used to indicate. The forms
of human language demonstrate this property because they do not, in any way, fit the objects
they denote.
iv. Cultural Transmission
We usually inherit the colour of eyes or height from our parents but we do not inherit their
language. We acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. If
a child born in Sweden to Swedish parent might inherit blond hair, pale complexion but if s/he is
brought up from birth by English speakers in the USA e.g. will inevitably speak English. This
process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is called cultural
transmission. Human infants, growing up in isolation, produce no instinctive language.
v. Discreteness
 The sounds we use in language are meaningfully distinct. For example the difference between
“i” “í” is not very great, but when we use these sounds in a language we cannot use “i” instead
of “í” because then there is distinction in meaning. It is the same with pairs like p, b, t, d and so
on. The property of language when each sound is treated as discrete is described as discreteness.
For example the English word tin would consist of three units t/i/n. Speech units can be ordered
and reordered, combined and split apart.
vi. Duality
Language is organized in two levels. This property is called duality or double articulation. One
level is when we produce individual sounds like “n, t, d, i”. In another level we produce these
sounds in a particular combination “bin, tip” and we are producing a meaning that is different
from other combination of these sounds. At one level we have distinct sound and at another level
we have distinct meaning. With a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a
very large number of sound combinations which are distinct in meaning. Phonemes are
meaningless in isolation but they become meaningful only when they are combined with other
phonemes.
vii. Learn and taught of total feedback
In human language, it is possible for speakers to perceive as well as reflect upon the messages
that they transmit themselves.
viii. Specialization
Human language allows its users to continue to talk while engaging in physical activity totally
over the unrelated to the subject matter of the discussion. For example, you could be talking over
the phone and be cooking, sweeping or doing any other activity.
ix. Change
Since language grows with the specific needs of society, it changes with time. News words get
introduced to label new phenomenon. Some words are dropped when they become obsolete;
some acquire additional meanings; while some change form or spellings. E.g. in old English thou
is now you, knavish is the old use of a dishonest man or boy.
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
These are essentially the communicative roles of language. They are:
i. Identification role: Language is used to signal class identity. Speaking a language
identifies an individual as a member of that speech community. E.g. speaking Hausa
 language tags an individual to be a member of that speech community not necessary a
member of such ethic group.
ii. Informational role: The most important role of language is for individuals to pass on
information from one person to another.
iii. Expressive role: Language can serve as a means of by which one can express his
emotion, feelings or attitudes towards his fellow being or a state of affairs.
iv. Integrative role: Language can be used as a means by which one can establish a contact
or relationship with other people within one speech community.
v. Performativity and Heuristic role: Language can also be used to bring about a sudden
change in the state of affairs in the real world as soon as the utterance is made. Example
in politics, wedding, etc. thus, it enable you discover, learn and imbibe through enquires,
discussion and even experience.
vi. The Imaginative and Ludic role: Language can be used for amusement or to entertain
people to laugh as in comedy. It could as well enable an individual create his own world;
paint it out to his own taste. This is usually achieved through fiction writing.
Pronoun
Pronoun is defined as a word that replaces a noun in a sentence to avoid unnecessary repetition
of nouns It takes place of a noun. Eg. Muhammad loves children. He loves them. Workers look
for money. They look for it.
Read the paragraph written below.
(Jam is a boy of sixteen. Jam is studying in 5th class. Jam has two brothers. Jam loves playing
football. Jam is captain of his team.)
Look at above paragraph. The name Jam looks strange in every sentence due to repetition of
noun Jam. We replace it with pronoun to make a sentence beautiful and easy to avoid word
redundancy. We will replace it with appropriate pronoun and read it again.
Jam is a boy of sixteen. He is studying in 5th class and has two brothers. He loves playing
football and he is captain of his team.
Types of Pronoun
Pronouns are categorized into many types. Main types include personal pronoun, possessive
pronoun, indefinite pronoun, reflective pronoun, intensive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun,
interrogative pronoun, and reflexive pronoun.
 i. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns refer to a person's name. We use personal pronouns as a substitute for a
person's name. There are two kinds of personal pronoun: Subjective and objective pronouns.
(a) Subjective pronoun: Subjective pronouns replace the subject in a sentence.
Common subjective pronouns are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they
Example: I love watching TV.
(b) Objective pronouns: Objective pronouns replace the object in a sentence. Common
objective pronouns are: me, us, you, him, her, it, and them
Examples: She gave him a present on his birthday.
ii. Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are the pronouns that show ownership and possession in a sentence. We
categorize possessive pronoun into two types:
 Strong possessive pronoun
 Weak possessive pronoun
The strong possessive pronouns include yours mine, his, hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours. They
refer back to a noun or noun phrase already used, replacing it to avoid repetition: "I said that pen
was mine." Strong possessive pronouns are sometime called absolute possessive pronoun.
The weak possessive pronouns include your, my, her, his, its, their, our, and, your. Their function
is as a determiner in front of a noun to express whom something belongs to: "I said that's my
pen." Sometime we call them possessive adjectives.
iii. Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to something that in not definite in a sentence, they do not refer to
particular thing or person. We use them when an object does not need to be specifically
identified. There are two main types of indefinite pronoun: Singular indefinite pronoun and
plural indefinite pronoun.
 Singular Indefinite Pronoun: We use singular indefinite pronouns for the singular objects
and not for plural. Singular indefinite pronouns include: someone, somebody, something,
no one, nobody, nothing, everyone, everybody, everything, anybody, another, anyone,
each, anything, either, other, one, neither, and much.
 Plural Indefinite Pronoun: Plural indefinite pronouns are used for the plural objects and
not for singular. Plural indefinite pronouns include many, several, few, others, and both.
 iv. Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates the relative clause to another clause within a
sentence. In addition, introduces the relative clause or an adjective clause. In mostly cases it acts
as a subject of the relative clause. The most commonly used relative pronouns are mentioned
below.
Examples: Whom, whoever, whomever, who, that, which and whose
Example in a sentence:
 She does not know which pack of pencil you want.
 "Which pack of pencil you want" is a relative clause, and the relative pronoun "which"
has linked it to the main clause.
v. Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify nouns and pronouns and we define it as a
pronoun that ends in self or selves. Intensive pronouns place emphasis on its antecedent by
referring back to another noun or pronoun used earlier in the sentence. An intensive pronoun is
approximately identical to a reflexive pronoun. Intensive pronouns are also sometimes called
emphatic pronouns.
Intensive pronouns are himself, myself, themselves, itself, herself, yourselves, ourselves and
yourself,
Example in a sentence:
 I myself like to sing.
 Jerry herself is her worst critic.
vi. Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are the nouns that take place of a noun that's already been mentioned in
a sentence. Demonstrative pronouns can be singular or plural. Five main demonstrative pronouns
are: these, those, such, this, that,
Example in a sentence:
 These are beautiful. Do not eat that.
vii. Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun often stands for something that we are not aware of yet, because we are
asking about it. We use these pronouns specifically to ask questions. These pronouns are special
because they all start with "Wh", which is quite easy to remember.
Most commonly used interrogative pronouns are: whose, what, whom, which, and who.
The other words like "whichever" and "whatsoever" are the words that we use as interrogative
pronouns.
Words with 'WH' that are not interrogative pronouns. There are many other words that start with
WH but they are not interrogative pronouns. Because they are just words that start with 'WH'
and are in questions! When t an interrogative pronoun is neither is "where" nor "why".
Moreover, unlike other pronouns, sometime interrogative pronouns do not have antecedents
because you are not yet sure what they really are!
Example in a sentence:
 What is your nickname?
 Whose pen is this?
 Whatsoever do you suggest by that? Whom were you talking with last night? Which of
these three do you like?
Sentence in which 'wh' words are not interrogative pronoun:
 When do you have to go to gymnasium?
 He doesn't know where Ali was living last week.
viii. Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns are similar, but the difference between them is that
intensive pronouns are not essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are.
In addition, they are used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person
or thing. Reflexive pronouns end in -selves or -self. Reflexive pronouns are:
 Yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, herself, myself, yourselves.
Example in a sentence:
 She told herself to spend all vacations at home.
 He bought himself a new phone.
Reciprocal Pronouns
A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that we use to identify a feeling or any kind of action that is
reciprocated among two or more than two. That is why; it always refers to two or more than two
persons.
For example, Jane is laughing at Lizzy and Lizzy is laughing at Jane. So we say:
 Jane and Lizzy are laughing at each other.
Each other and One another are the two reciprocal pronouns are not individual words but they
are phrases. While using them, there must be two or more things, persons, or groups involved.
Moreover, they all must be acting the same action.
Some more examples are:
 Paul and Jam help each other.
 Both teams fought hard against each other.
 Why do you laugh at each other?
 All the students gave presents to one another.
ix. Distributive Pronouns
Distributive pronoun is a pronoun that describes a member of a group separately from the group
and not collectively or including in that group. It refers to a thing or a person in a group. We use
this pronoun to describe all the individual members of a particular group. Distributive pronoun
are commonly used with plural noun and singular verb
Distributive pronouns that are commonly used are each, either, every, neither, none, everyone,
and any.
Example in a sentence:
 Each of the boys writes a poem.
 Neither of the pens is black.
1. Verb
A verb shows the happening or state of something. It is an action word. It can show:
 If somebody does something; like: This cat sleeps all day.
 If something has done onto someone; like: A stranger patted the stray cat.
 The state of someone or something; like: The cat is alive fortunately.
Verb is the most important part of any sentence. A sentence does not make sense without a verb
in it. There are some instants where a one-word answer can make up for a whole sentence; like,
yes or indeed, etc, without the use of verb, but these responses are not used in formal writing.
Verbs can also consist of more than one word, such as:
 The children were playing in the backyard.
Types of Verbs
These are the main kinds of verbs:
1) Linking Verbs
Linking verb is a verb that connects a sentence together. It does not mean anything on its own
but makes sense when used in a sentence. Common Linking Verbs that are used are: Is, am, are,
was, were
Examples in sentences:
 The birds are flying high up in the sky. She is always looking fabulous.
In the above examples, we can see that the linking verbs are connecting the subject with the rest
of the sentence. Without Linking Verbs, the sentences do not have a complete structure.
2) Action Verbs
Action verbs show action. They create an image of the happening in your head. There are two
kinds of action verbs:
a) Transitive Verbs
b) Intransitive Verbs
(a) Transitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that has a direct object is known as Transitive
verb. The verb should have something on which it is performed. The sentences containing
Transitive Verbs can also be converted from Active Voice to Passive Voice.
Look at the examples below:
 The batsman hit the ball hard. She walked the streets alone.
In the first example, we can see that the verb hit has a direct object ball. The sentence can also be
converted into passive voice: the batsman hit the ball.
The same case is with the second sentence. The verb walked has direct object streets and the
sentence can be converted into passive voice: The streets were walked by her, alone.
(b) Intransitive Verbs: The verb in a sentence that does not have a direct object is known as
Intransitive verb. The sentences containing Intransitive Verbs cannot be converted from
Active Voice to Passive Voice. Let us see the examples below:
 The lion cub sleeps. The house is flawed.
In both of the above examples, there is no direct object. Both cannot be converted into passive
voice too. So, the verbs; sleeps and flawed are intransitive.
 Most verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively. For example:
 The child rings the bell.
Here the verb 'rings' has a direct object and is used transitively.
 The bell rings loudly.
Here the verb 'rings' does not have a direct object and is used intransitively.
More Examples:
I stopped the car. (Transitively)
The car stopped suddenly. (Intransitively)
There are some verbs such as: go, sleep, die, fall, etc, which show an action that cannot be done
to anything or anyone. Hence, these verbs can never be used transitively.
3) Reflexive Verbs
Reflexive verbs are those who’s subject and direct object are the same. They refer back to the
same thing or person. Let us see the examples below.
 She stays home herself. The cat cleans itself.
In both the above examples, the verbs are referring back to the same person. Their subject and
object are the same, hence they are Reflexive Verbs. The reference back is done in form of
Reflexive Pronouns by which they are being called reflexive verbs.
4) Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs help the main verb in a sentence and are called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary Verbs,
when used with ordinary verbs help in changing the tenses, mood or voice of a sentence. They
also help in making negatives and interrogatives of sentences. Auxiliary Verbs are also simply
called Auxiliaries. Common words that come under this category are as follows:
 Is, am, are, was, were, have, do, etc
Examples in sentences:
 I was going to the shop.
Here the Auxiliary is used to form a continuous tense.
 The car door was opened.
Here it is used in formation of a sentence in passive voice.
 I have to reach the airport at 5:00 am.
To form questions, to emphasize on something, or to make a request, the Auxiliary Do is used.
 Do you know where the parking lot is?
 You do look great.
 Do visit!
5) Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are the verbs that are used before the ordinary verbs to show meanings such as:
possibilities, permission, certainty etc. They can just simply be called Modals. Common Modal
Verbs that are used are as follows:
 Can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought
Never and dare are also used as modal verbs sometimes.
Examples in sentences:
 You dare not do such a thing. You must be Sara's sister.
 You could have stopped them.
Modals are mostly put in the category of Auxiliaries. Then they are sometimes called Modal
Auxiliaries.
2. Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It provides us with
further information about a verb, adjective or another adverb. It tells us in which manner, at what
place or time, something happened, or is/was done.
Look at the examples below.
 Ali walks swiftly.
 She took the grocery out of the shopping bags very
 That is a really sweet child
In the first example, the adverb swiftly is modifying the verb walks and is telling us the manner
in which Ali walks.
In the second example, the adverb very is modifying another adverb, carefully.
In the third one, the adverb really is modifying the word sweet, which is an adjective.
Kinds of Adverbs
Adverbs are categorized into many kinds, such as:
i. Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time tell us about which time an action was performed. These answer the question:
When? Common words which come under the category of adverbs of time are:
 Ago, before, after, later, already, now, never, formerly, soon, since, etc
Examples in sentences:
 I called my friend a few days ago.
 I formerly worked at the pizza shop.
 ii. Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us about at what place an action took place. These answer the question:
Where? Common words which come under the category of adverbs of place are:
 Here, there, up, out, in, within, away, etc
Examples in sentences:
 Mr. Saud was visiting here an hour ago. I'm going out with my family.
iii. Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency show us about how often or how many times a thing took place. These
answer the question: How often? Common words used as adverbs of frequency are:
 Once, twice, again, often, seldom, rarely, always, frequently, etc
Examples in sentences:
 I often go to visit my grandparents. It rarely rains around here.
iv. Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree inform us about to what degree or an extent something happens. These
answer the question: How much? Adverbs of Degree are also known as Adverbs of Quantity.
Common words used as Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are:
 Too, any, almost, so, pretty, rather, quite, partly, altogether, enough, etc
Examples in sentences:
 I was pretty busy yesterday.
 The sauce I bought today was good enough for making my pizza.
In the above examples, we can see that the words pretty and enough both answer the question of
how much.
v. Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner give us information about how or in which manner some action is preceded.
These answer the question: How? Adverbs of manner usually are derived from adjectives and
mostly end in -ly. Following are some common words that come under the adverbs of manner
category:
 Swiftly, clearly, foolishly, well, so, slowly,
Examples in sentences:
 Hassan caught the loose snake bravely.
 Her hair is always well combed.
  She should do so.
vi. Adverbs of Reason
Adverbs of Reason are the words that are used to state the reason or cause of some happening.
These are also known as Adverb of Cause and answer the question: Why? The common words
that come under this category are:
 Because, hence, therefore, so, etc
Example in sentences:
 I therefore went to the market by myself.
 He was hungry, so he went to the restaurant.
vii. Adverbs of Affirmation Negation
Adverbs of Affirmation are the words that are used to affirm or declare something as true. These
validate things. These are the words that are commonly used as adverbs of affirmation:
 Surely, certainly, definitely, very, obviously, yes, indeed, etc.
Examples:
 Surely it rained yesterday.
 I am obviously going to get an A+ on my test.
viii. Adverbs of Negation
Adverbs of negation are the words which denote a statement, action or an idea as false. It is used
to negate something. Words commonly used to falsify something are:
 No, never, invalidly, etc
Examples in sentences:
 He never went to Italy.
 I no longer like to play table tennis.
ix. Relative Adverbs
Relative Adverbs are the words which come before an adjective clause. These are:
 When, where and why.
Examples in sentences:
 That was the reason why Harris came.
 The place where I parked my car is very deserted.
 She forgot the time when we went to the States.
x. Interrogative Adverbs
Interrogative Adverbs are the verbs used to ask questions. These are placed in the beginning of
the sentence which contains the question. These words are commonly used as interrogative
adverbs:
 Why, where, how, when
Examples in sentences:
 When will you come to visit?
 How was the roast cooked?
Degrees of Adverbs
Like adjectives, adverbs also have Degrees of Comparison. But, only Adverbs of time, degree
and manner admit to the comparison. Adverbs like now, then, there, once, etc cannot be
compared because of their nature.
Degrees of Comparison
Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time are changed in form very often to denote comparison. The
degree to which these adverbs change, determines their degree. These degrees are called
Degrees of Comparison. There are three degrees of comparison:
 Positive Degree
 Comparative Degree
 Superlative Degree.
 Positive Degree
An adverb with a positive degree is an adverb in its simple and original form. There is no
comparison going on with anything. It just lets it known that some quality exists in something or
someone. Look at the examples below.
 She walked slowly.
 The car is parked at a near location.
 Comparative Degree
The comparative degree of an adverb shows that the presence of a quality in one thing is more or
higher than its presence in the Positive. This degree is used when the comparison of two things is
happening. Look at the examples below to get a more clear idea.
 She walked more slowly than her friends.
 The car is park at a nearer location.
 Superlative Degree
The Superlative Degree of Comparison is used when the some quality in one thing or person is
highest than anything or anyone else. Superlative degree is used when a thing or person is in
comparison against more than one thing or person.
Examples:
 Of all the people, she walked the most slowly.
 The car is parked at the next location.
In the above examples, we have compared the thing we were talking about with all the other
things of the like. This is the highest form of comparison and hence is the Superlative Degree.
3. Adjective
An adjective is defined a word which gives information about a noun, pronoun, or a noun phrase.
It gives additional information about a noun or pronoun. It shows the quality, kind, or degree of a
noun. Look at the examples below.
 Sana gave me eight apples
 The mouse is little.
In the first example, the word eight is telling about the quantity of apples. It is giving additional
information about the apples, hence is an adjective.
In the second example, the word little is telling us about the quality of the mouse, that it is little,
so it is an adjective too.
Kinds of Adjective
Adjectives are categorized into many kinds, such as:
i. Adjectives of Quality
Adjectives of quality describe the kind, quality, or degree, of a noun or pronoun. They are also
called Descriptive Adjectives.
Examples:
 He ate a big mango. Hassan is an honest man.
 The child is foolish.
 Arabic language is not hard to learn.
In the last example, the word Arabic is a Proper Noun. Such Adjectives which are formed from
Proper Nouns are called sometimes as Proper Adjectives. They generally come under the
category of Adjectives of Quality.
ii. Adjectives of Quantity
These adjectives tell us about the quantity of a noun. They answer the question: How much?
Common Adjectives of Quantity are:
 Some, much, no, any, little, enough, great, half, sufficient
Examples:
 Take great care of your grandma's health.
 The pay is enough for my expenses.
 Half of the papers were checked.
iii. Adjectives of Number
Adjectives of Number tell us about how many things or people are meant or the order of standing
of people or things. These are also called Numeral Adjectives. There are of three kinds of
Numeral Adjectives:
 Definite Numeral Adjectives
 Indefinite Numeral Adjectives
 Distributive Numeral Adjectives
 Definite Numeral Adjectives:
These represent an accurate number. Definite Numeral Adjectives are of further two types:
 Cardinals and Ordinals: Cardinals indicate how many. Such as: One, two, three, etc.
Example:
 I have three pairs of scissors.
 Ordinals indicate in which order. Such as: First, second, third, etc.
Example:
 She was the first one to arrive at the airport.
 Indefinite Numeral Adjectives:
Indefinite Numeral Adjectives do not represent an accurate number. Some of the common
indefinite numeral adjectives are:
 No, all, few, many, some, several, any, etc.
Examples in sentences:
 All the cats are sleeping.
 I have taken several different baking lessons.
 There are no pedestrians on the street.
 Distributive Numeral Adjectives:
These adjectives refer to a specific or all things or people of a bunch. Some common Distributive
Numeral Adjectives are:
 Every, each, either, neither
Examples in sentences:
 Each student must take its turn.
 Neither proposal is acceptable.
iv. Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative Adjectives point to a specific person or thing. They answer the question: Which?
Some common demonstrative adjectives are:
 This, that, these, those, such
Examples:
 This is my assignment.
 Those are spicy dishes.
 Such an attitude will cause him failure.
v. Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions. When what, whose and which are used with a
noun to ask questions, they become interrogative adjectives. Interrogative adjectives are only
three and are very easy to remember.
Examples in sentences:
 Which way goes to the mall? What time is it?
 Whose duty time is it?
vi. Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives denote the ownership of something. Common possessive adjectives are:
 My, your, our, its, his, her, their
Examples in sentences:
 My daily routine is pretty simple.
 Your shoelaces are loose.
 Cat is licking its paws.
 They are doing their work.
vii. Emphasizing Adjectives
Emphasizing adjectives are used to put emphasis in sentences. Look at the example below.
  This is the very book I want.
 Sarah saw the robbery with her own eyes.
In the examples above, very and own are added to put additional emphasis.
viii. Exclamatory Adjective
Exclamatory adjective is used to exclaim excitement, fear and other extreme feelings. There is
only one word which is usually used to exclaim i.e. what.
Examples in sentences:
 What crap!
 What a spectacular view!
 What foolishness!
4. Preposition
Prepositions are the words that we put before nouns or pronouns. These denote in what relation
the person or thing indicated by it exists, in relation to something else. Look at the examples
below.
 The child jumped off the bed.
 There is a bee in the jar.
 Hani is fond of cheesecakes.
In the first example, the word 'off 'is showing the relation between the action denoted by the verb
jumped, and the noun chair.
In the second example, the word 'in' is showing the relation between bee and the jar.
In the third example, the word 'of' is showing the relation between the quality denoted by the
adjective fond and the noun cheesecake.
 Hence the words off, in and of are Prepositions.
Kinds of Prepositions
Prepositions are classified into following categories:
1. Simple Prepositions
Simple prepositions are used to denote a relation between nouns or pronouns. These can even be
used to join different parts of sentences and clauses. Simple prepositions are one word
prepositions. These are also called Single Prepositions. Common words used that come under the
category of Simple Prepositions are as follows:
 In, out, on, up, at, for, from, by, of, off, through, till, etc
Examples in sentences:
 Keep your phones in your pockets.
 Staring at people is not considered a good gesture.
In the above two examples, both prepositions consist of one simple word and hence are Single or
Simple Prepositions.
2. Double Prepositions
Double Prepositions are made by putting together two Single Prepositions. That is why they are
called Double Prepositions. Common words used as Double Prepositions are as follows:
 Onto, into, throughout, up till, up to, within, without, upon, etc
Examples in sentences:
 Complete this essay within two hours.
 I am going to turn this scrap into a masterpiece.
In the first example, the Preposition within is made by combining two Single Prepositions with
and in.
In the second example, the Preposition into is formed by putting together two Simple
Prepositions in and two. These are hence Double Prepositions.
3. Compound Prepositions
Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a Preposition to Nouns, Adjectives or
Adverbs. They are different from Double Prepositions because they are not formed by two single
prepositions. Common words, which come under the category of Compound Prepositions, are
stated below:
 Above, about, across, along, before, behind, beside, inside, outside, etc
Examples in sentences:
 He was going about his business.
 The person beside Ali is my brother.
In the first example, the prefix 'a' is added to a root word 'bout' to make a preposition. In the
second example, the prefix be is added to the root word side to make a preposition. Thus, these
words are Compound Prepositions.
4. Phrasal Prepositions
Phrasal Prepositions are groups of words or phrases that join the noun or pronoun in a sentence,
to the remainder of the sentence. These groups of words express a single idea by coming together
as a unit. Words that come under the category of Phrasal Prepositions are as follows:
 In addition to, by means of, in spite of, according to, owing to, in favor of, etc
Examples in sentences:
 He couldn't pass the test, owing to his lack of knowledge of English Grammar.
 She made it to the other side of the world, in spite of all the difficulties.
In the first example, the group of words 'owing to' is joining the two sentences with each other
and is a phrase. Likewise, the group of words 'in spite of' is also a phrase and is working as a
preposition. Hence, these are Phrasal Prepositions.
5. Participle Prepositions
Participle Prepositions, indicating from their name, are the Present Participle forms of Verbs.
These are used without any noun or pronoun attached with them. The words that are
distinguished as Participle Prepositions are as follows:
 Concerning, considering, barring, notwithstanding, touching, pending, during, etc
Examples in sentences:
 Notwithstanding his efforts, he was still fired from the job.
 Touching this matter, I do not have much information.
In above examples, both the verbs notwithstanding and touching are in Present Participle which
is apparent from the 'ing' at the end of both words. These words are therefore Participle
Prepositions.
6. Disguised Prepositions
Disguised Prepositions are those prepositions which are not used in the sentences directly, but
are disguised. Their shorter forms are used. The examples of Disguised Prepositions are 'a' and
'o'. 'a' is shortened form of the preposition 'on' and 'o' is the shortened form of the preposition
'of'.
Examples in sentences:
 The ceremony will be held at 5 o' clock.
 We all went to a party.
In the first example, instead of saying '5 of the clock', we have used disguised form of the
preposition of.
In the second example, instead of saying 'went on partying', we have used abbreviation of the
preposition on and disguised the preposition as 'a'. Hence these are Disguised Prepositions.
7. Detached Prepositions
A preposition is called a Detached Preposition when it does not come before its object. It is
detached from its object. When the object of a preposition is an interrogative pronoun or a
relative pronoun, the preposition comes at the end of the sentence.
Look at the following examples for further understanding.
 She is the woman whom I was talking about.
 Here are the books that you asked for.
 Which of the houses were you working in?
In the first two of the above examples, we can see that because of relative pronouns whom and
that, the prepositions about and for are being detached from their objects.
In the third example, the interrogative pronoun ‘which’ is detaching the preposition 'in' from its
object.
 Hence these are all Detached Prepositions.
5. Conjunction
Conjunctions are simply words that join sentences, clauses and sometimes words. These join
together sentences are to make them more compact. Unlike Relative Adverbs and Relative
Pronouns, Conjunctions just simply join and perform no other job. Look at the examples below
to get a clear understanding.
 The teacher is young, but
 Sara and Hania are sisters.
In the first example, the conjunction 'but' is joining two sentences and is also making them
smaller. So instead of saying 'but she is talented' we have shortened the sentence and made it
compact.
In the second example, the conjunction and is only joining two words.
Kinds of Conjunctions
There are two types of Conjunctions:
 Correlative Conjunctions
 Compound Conjunctions.
1. Correlative Conjunctions
There are some Conjunctions which are used as pairs. These types of conjunctions are called
Correlative Conjunctions or just Correlatives. Common Correlative Conjunctions are as follows:
 Either -or, neither -nor, both -and, though-yet, whether -or, not only -but also
Examples in sentences:
 Either do this or do that.
 Though it was raining heavily, yet she still managed to come.
Take note that correlative conjunctions should be placed right before the words to be joined. We
cannot write:
 She not only speaks English, but also Arabic.
The correct way is:
 She speaks not only English, but also Arabic.
2. Compound Conjunctions
Many compound expressions are also used as conjunctions. These compound expressions are
called Compound Conjunctions. Common words that come under the category of Compound
Conjunctions are as follows.
 In order that, as if, as soon as, as well as, inasmuch as, provided that, even if, etc
Examples in sentences:
 The house looks as if it was made hundreds of years ago.
 You can have the sweets provided that you brush your teeth afterwards.
 I accept your invitation, inasmuch as spending time with you is great.
Classes of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are divided into two classes:
 Coordinating Conjunctions
 Subordinating Conjunctions.
 Coordinating Conjunctions
The word Co-coordinating means 'of equal rank'. The conjunctions which join together two
sentences or clauses or equal rank or significance are known as Co-coordinating Conjunctions.
They connect two independent clauses together. The main coordinating conjunctions are as
follows:
 And, but, for, nor, or, also, neither -nor, either -or
Examples in sentences:
  Dos bark and cats mew.
 I went to work but my sister stayed at home.
Kinds of Co-coordinating Conjunctions
These are the four kinds of Coordinating Conjunctions:
 Cumulative Conjunctions
 Adversative Conjunctions
 Disjunctive Conjunctions
 Illative Conjunctions
i. Cumulative Conjunctions
These conjunctions simply add one clause to another. Cumulative Conjunctions are also called
Copulative Conjunctions.
Examples in sentences:
 The cat got up and ran very fast.
 He plays guitar as well as he paints pictures.
ii. Adversative Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to indicate opposition or contrast between two statements or clauses.
Examples in sentences:
 He is ill, but he is getting better.
 She was all right; only she had a headache.
iii. Disjunctive Conjunctions
Distinctive Conjunctions are used to present two sentences which provide two alternatives.
These conjunctions are also known as Alternative Conjunctions.
Examples in sentences:
 You must quit smoking, or you will get seriously ill.
 Revise your lesson; else you will fail the test.
iv. Illative Conjunctions
Illative conjunctions denote inferences. They make an assumption in one statement based on the
condition in the other statement.
Examples in sentences:
 Someone is at the door, for the bell rang.
 I have been applying for Colleges everywhere, so I will definitely get in one.
 v. Subordinating Conjunctions
The conjunctions which join together an independent clause to a dependent clause are called
Subordinating Conjunctions. The main Subordinating Conjunctions are:
 After, before, because, if, till, as, that, though, although, unless, etc
Examples in sentences:
 After the rain was over the sun came out again.
 I will wait here till you come back.
Kinds of Subordinating Conjunctions
According to their meanings, subordinating conjunctions are classified as:
i. Subordinating Conjunctions of Time
These conjunctions are used to indicate time of happening of something.
Examples in sentences:
 I went home after the sunset.
 Hani reached the ceremony before it was over.
ii. Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause
Subordinating Conjunctions of Cause are used to show the cause and effect of something. They
give the reason behind the happening of something. These are also called Conjunctions of
Reason.
Examples in sentences:
 She baked a cake because it was her birthday.
 Since you have been gone, I am doing the dishes.
iii. Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose
These are the conjunctions which denote the purpose of things that: why something was done or
why something happened.
Examples in sentences:
 He ate, so that he won't be hungry.
 I went to the doctor lest my wound should be infected.
iv. Subordinating Conjunctions of Consequence
These conjunctions show the result of some happening. For this reason they are also
Conjunctions of Result.
Examples in sentences:
  She worked so many hours that she could barely sit.
 The seminar was boring so people started yawning.
v. Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition:
Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition are used to express that something will happen if some
other thing is done. Or what will happen if the condition of one clause is fulfilled.
Examples in sentences:
 She will work if she gets paid handsomely.
 People will not succeed unless they work efficiently.
vi. Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession:
These conjunctions concede or state a fact or idea regardless of what claim is made in the main
clause. Look at the following examples to get clear on this one.
 Though my cat is ill, yet it plays all day.
 Even though he was rich, he never looked down upon anyone.
We can see that in example one, regardless of illness of the cat, it still plays. So in spite of
whatever is said in the clause, a fact is still presented by using a conjunction of concession.
vii. Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison:
Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison are used to show comparison between two things, in
two statements.
Examples in sentences:
 She is stronger than her friend.
 Our team wore white whereas their team.
6. Interjections
Interjections are the words or group of words that are used to express and exclaim extreme
emotions. These words are always used with an exclamation mark. Interjections do not have any
grammatical function in a sentence. The words that are commonly used as Interjections are as
follows:
 Hurrah! , Alas! , Oh no! , Oh my God! , What! , etc
Different types of Interjections
Interjections can be used to express various types of emotions such as happiness, surprise,
sadness, anger and greetings. On such various types of emotions we classified them into different
types.
1. Interjections for Greeting
Such interjections are used in sentences to show the emotions of warmness to the person meeting
with.
Examples:
 Good morning! It's great to see you.
 Hey! When you came here?
 Hello! I am Sadaf.
2. Interjections for Happiness
Such interjections are used in sentences to show happiness or joy on any happy occasion.
Examples:
 Yeah! We won!
 Hurrah! I've won!
 Wow! What a pleasant weather!
3. Interjections for Attention
Such interjections are used in sentences to draw the attention of someone.
Examples:
 Hey! Let's go on a picnic!
 Yo! What is going on?
 Look! Jam is so happy.
 Listen! I am starving.
4. Interjections for Approval
Such interjections are used in sentences to show the sense of agreement or approval for
something.
Examples:
 Well done! You got first position.
 Brilliant! You arrived here in time.
5. Interjections for Surprise
Such interjections are used in sentences to indicate the sense of surprise about something that has
happened.
Examples:
 Oh! What a lovely scene!
  Ah! It sounds good.
 What! She passed away.
6. Interjections for Sorrow
Such interjections are used in sentences to express the emotion of sadness about something
unfortunate has happened.
Examples:
 Alas! He could not recover from his illness.
 Ouch! That hurts.
 Oops, I'm sorry. It was hot.
 Alas! His friend died.
7. Interjections for Shock
Such interjections are used in sentences to express the shock about something happened.
Examples:
 What! What have you done?
8. Interjections for Anger
Such interjections are used in sentences to express the anger about something unfortunate has
happened by someone's mistake or carelessness.
Examples:
 Excuse me! I am not a beggar.
 Interjections in form of phrases
Some of the interjections are used in common phrases. Few of them are stated as follows:
 What hell! , Goodness gracious! , Good Lord! , Oh my God! , Oh no! , What the heck! ,
What Goodness! etc.