Air Pollution:

• By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.039% carbon dioxide.

• According to Section 2(b) of Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981 ‘air
pollution’ has been defined as ‘the presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutant.’

• As per Section 2(a) of Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981 ‘air
pollutant’ has been defined as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance [(including
noise)] present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment’.

• Therefore, ambient air quality standard is developed as a policy guideline that regulates the effect of human activity upon the
environment so that pollutant emission into the air can be regulated. Standards may specify a desired state or limit alterations.

Primary and Secondary pollutants

• Primary pollutants are directly emitted from a source. For example oxides of Nitrogen from burning of a combustion engine in a
car.
• Secondary pollutants: These are not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the
atmosphere.
o Examples: Ozone (O3), which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of
sunlight;
o Acid rain, which is formed when Sulfur dioxide (SO2) or nitrogen oxides (NOx) react with water.
o Photochemical Smog

Point and Non-Point Sources:

• Point Source: Pollution that comes from a single, identifiable source, such as a power plant, factory, or construction site.
• Nonpoint-source pollution is harder to address. It is pollution that comes from many places, all at once. For example, vehicular
pollution, stove burning etc.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

The objectives of air quality standards are:

• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to protect the public health, vegetation and
property;
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level;
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• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level;

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• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

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Parameters monitored under NAMP

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To check air quality of the country, Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) under
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which three air pollutants viz.,

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• Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),

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• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and

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• PM 10 (Particulate Matter size equal to or less than 10 micron)

• PM2.5 (Particulate Matter having an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 µm),
• Carbon monoxide (CO),
• Ammonia (NH3)
• Lead (Pb)
• Ozone (O3),
• Benzene (C6H6)
• Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)
• Arsenic (As) and
• Nickel (Ni)

Air Pollutants, Sources and Their Effects:

Pollutant Possible Sources Effec

ts
Natural Anthropogenic Human / flora / fauna Environment &
Property
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) • Volcanoes (67%) • combustion of fossil fuel (coal, heavy • respiratory illness • acid rain
SO2 is the chemical compound produced fuel oil in thermal power plants, • visibility impairment • aesthetic damage
by volcanoes and in various industrial office, factories)
• aggravate existing
processes and are also a precursor to • paper Industry heart and lung diseases
particulates in the atmosphere. • extraction & distribution of fossil
fuels
• smelting of metals (sulfide ores to
produce copper, lead and zinc)
• Petroleum refining
• combustion process in diesel, petrol,
natural gas driven vehicles
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Oxides of • Lightning • High temperature combustion • irritates the nose • Precursor of ozone
nitrogen are a generic term for a group of (internal combustion engines, and throat formed in the
• Forest fires
highly reactive gases that contain nitrogen fossil fuel-fired power stations, • increase susceptibility troposphere
and oxygen in varying amounts. NOx are • Bacterial activityof soil industrial) torespiratory infections • Form atmospheric fine
emitted as nitrogen oxide (NO) which is • Burning of Bio-mass and Fossil particulate matter burden
rapidly oxidized to more toxic nitrogen Fuels as a result of oxidation to
dioxide (NO2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a form nitrate aerosol
reddish-brown toxic gas with a
characteristic sharp, biting odor
• acid Rain
and is a prominent air pollutant.

Respirable Suspended Particulate • Coarse particles are • Road traffic emissions • cardio- Visibility reduction
Matter (PM10, size ≤10m, coarse produced by the particularly from diesel vehicles pulmonary
fraction PM10 - PM2.5). called thoracic mechanical break-up • Industrial combustion plants some problems
fraction) Particulate matter (PM) is a of larger solid public power generation • asthma, bronchitis,
complex mixture of suspended solid and particles. and pneumonia in
• Commercial and residential
liquid particle in semi equilibrium with Wind blown dust such older people
combustion
surrounding gases. The major as road dust, fly ash, Non-combustion processes (e.g.
constituents of RSPM are organic and soot, agricultural quarrying)
elemental carbon, metals/elements like processes
silicon, magnesium, iron, ions like
• agricultural activities
• physical processes
sulphates, nitrates, ammonium etc. ofcrushing,
PM10 can settle in the bronchi and lungs grinding and
and cause health problems abrasion of
surfaces.
• photochemically
produced particles,
such as those found
in urban haze
• Pollen grains, mould
spores, and plant
and insect parts
• Non-
• combustible materials
released whenburning
fossil fuels.
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5, size ≤ • Fine particles are • Vehicular emission • oxidative stress • aesthetic damage
2.5m, fine fraction size up to 2.5 µm, largely formed • Industrial combustion plants some • respiratory symptoms • visibility reduction
respirable fraction) Airborne particles from gases. public power generation such as irritation of
smaller than 2.5 µm called fine particles. • Ultrafine particles are
Composed mainly of carbonaceous • Commercial and residential the airways, coughing,
formed by nucleation, combustion or difficulty breathing
materials (organic and elemental), which is the initial
inorganic compounds (sulfate, nitrate,
• decreased lung function
stage in which gas
and ammonium), and trace metal • aggravated asthma
becomes a particle.
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compounds (iron, aluminium, nickel, These particles can • chronic bronchitis
copper, zinc, and lead). pose the •
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grow up to a size of irregular

greatest problems, PM2.5, tend to heartbeat cardio-
1µm either through
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penetrate into the gas exchange regions

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condensation, when pulmonary

of the lung, and very small particles (< disordera
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100 nanometers) may pass through the

lungs to affect other organs. The
condensates or • premature death in
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smallest particles, however, less than
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100 nm (nanoparticles) can get into the
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Ozone(O3) • ozone is present in the • formed by the reaction of sunlight on • lung function deficits • Ozone cracking in car
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Ozone is a pale blue gas, soluble in atmosphere in the air containing hydrocarbons and • tires, gaskets, O-rings
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respiratory illness
water and non-polar solvents with
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stratosphere, in a nitrogen oxides emitted by car is caused by attack of

specific sharp odor somewhat • premature death, asthma,
region also known as engines, industrial operations, ozone on any polymer
resembling chlorine bleach. bronchitis, heart attack,
the ozone layer chemical solvents to form ozone possessing olefinic or
Ozone is a secondary pollutants formed and other
between about 10 km • electronic equipment such as double bonds within its
in the atmosphere by reaction between cardiopulmonary
and 50 km above the photocopiers chain structure,
oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic problems.
surface • ozone present in the
compounds (VOCs) in the presence of • ground-level ozone and
upper troposphere acts
sunlight. Peak O3 levels occur typically pollution which interferes
as a greenhouse gas,
during the warmer times of the year. with photosynthesis and
absorbing some of the
stunts overall growth of
infrared energy emitted
some plant species
by the earth.
Lead(Pb) • food (lead is absorbed • Waste incineration • Pb is rapidly absorbed
Lead is a bright silvery soft, dense, by plants) • Metal processing into the bloodstream and
ductile, highly malleable, bluish-white is believed to have
metal that has poor electrical • Paint Industry
adverse effects on the
conductivity heavy metal and is highly • lead solder in food cans, breast milk, central nervous system,
resistant to corrosion. drinking water, Cosmetics, ceramic the cardiovascular
pottery, burning of firewood or system, kidneys, and the
kerosene, indigenous remedies, immune system
tobacco and tobacco products,
• causes blood disorders
contaminated drinking water, toys,
like anemia increase in
industrial effluents, lead acid
blood presssure.
batteries, ammunition, paints and
varnishes, water pipes • potent neurotoxin that
accumulates both in soft
• automobile exhaust,
tissues and the bones.
• causes nephropathy, and
colic-like abdominal
pains.
• weakness in fingers,
wrists, or ankles.
• Miscarriage and
reduction of fertility in
males, delayed puberty
in girls
• permanently reduce the
cognitive capacity of
children
Carbon monoxide (CO) • produced during • Exhaust of internal combustion • CO enters the
also called carbonous oxide, is a normal animal engines, especially of vehicles bloodstream through
colorless, odorless and tasteless gas metabolism (by the with petrol engines lungs and combines with
which is slightly lighter than air. It is action of heme • Burning of carbon fuels hemoglobin forms
highly toxic to humans and animals in oxygenase 1 and 2 carboxyhemoglobin. This
higher quantities. Mainly formed by • organic combustion in waste
on the heme from condition is known as
incomplete combustion of carbon incineration
hemoglobin anoxemia, which inhibits
containing fuels. breakdown and
• power station processes blood’s oxygen carrying
produces • Iron smelting capacity to organs and
carboxyhemoglobin • burning of crop residues tissues.
in normal persons) in • Persons with heart
low quantities and disease are sensitive to
has some normal CO poisoning and may
biological functions experience chest pain if
(signalling molecule) they breathe the gas
• volcanic activity while exercising.
• forest and • adverse effects on the
bushfires fetus of a pregnant
woman
• Infants, elderly persons,
and individuals with
respiratory diseases are
also particularly
sensitive.
• anti-
inflammatories,
vasodilators and
encouragers of
neovascular growth
Ammonia (NH3) • putrefaction of • Farms • irritating
to skin, eyes, Odour
A compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, a nitrogenous animal • Fertilizers Industry throat, and lungs and
colourless gas with a characteristic and vegetable cause coughing
pungent odour. • Industrial sites that store ammonia or
matter
use it as a refrigerant can release • burns
Contributes significantly to the Ammonia and
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms high levels if the chemical leaks or is • Lungdamage and death
ammonium salts
by serving as a precursor to food and spilled may occur after exposure
are also found in
fertilizers, and either directly or to very high
small quantities in
indirectly, is also a building block for the concentrations of
rainwater, fertile ammonia
synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. soil and in seawater
• during volcanic
erruption
• The kidneys secrete
NH3 to
• neutralize excess
acid
Benzene (C6H6) • volcanoes • Combustion of fuel (automotive • Hematotoxic, neurotoxic,
Benzene is a colorless, sweet smelling
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• forest fires fuel, wood and stationary fossil leukemogenic,
liquid. Benzene is generated whenever fuel, other aromatics carcinogenic effects
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carbon-rich materials undergo • evaporation (fuel storage • Chronic exposure to

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system, developing fetus

and fertility in men, low
birth weights, delayed
bone formation, and bone
marrow damage
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (BaP) • coal tar (after a • Incomplete combustion of • Mutagenic and
(particulate phase only) is a five-ring forest fire), • fuels (processing of coal and crude oil) highly
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon whose • eruption of volcanoes
metabolites are mutagenic and highly • Combustion of natural gas carcinogenic (skin, lung,
and bladder cancer in
carcinogenic • Road transport
humans and in animals)
• Industrial plant • skin rash or eye irritation
• Tobacco smoke Bronchitis
• coal tar
• automobile exhaust fumes (especially
diesel engines), inall smoke resulting
from the combustion of organic
material
• charbroiled food, burnt toast,
cooked meat products, in burnt
foods such as coffee
Arsenic (As) • volcanic ash, • Smelting of metals, • epigenetic changes
is a solid layered, a ruffled analogue of weathering of the • Combustion of fuels (especially • multi-system
graphite, metallic gray in color and is a arsenic- containing of low-grade brown coal) organ failure
semiconductor. It is a potent poison mineral and ores as
IARC) recognizes arsenic and group 1 • Use of pesticides. • As poisoning
well as groundwater.
carcinogen (IARC) • wood preservation, glass production,
• food, water, soil and
nonferrous metal alloys, electronic
air
semiconductor manufacturing.
• coke oven emissions
associated with the smelter industry
Nickel (Ni) • urease (an enzyme • Combustion of fossil fuels • Nickel sulfide fume and • explosive in air
a silvery-white lustrous corrosion- dust is believed to be
which assists in the • Nickel plating
resistant metal with a slight golden tinge hydrolysis of urea) carcinogenic
• Metallurgical processes
contains nickel • allergy, dermatitis.
Sensitivity to nickel may
also be present in
patients with pompholyx.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

Concentration in Ambient Air

Pollutants Industrial, Ecologically Methods of Measurement
S. Time Residential Sensitive
No. Weighte , Rural and Area (notified
d other by Central
Average Areas Government
)
1 Sulphur Dioxide Annual* 50 20 1. Improved West and Gaeke
(SO2), µg/m3 24 Hours** 80 80 2. Ultraviolet Fluorescence
2 Nitrogen Dioxide Annual* 40 30 1. Modified Jacob & Hochheiser
(NO2 ), µg/m3 24 Hours** 80 80 2. Chemiluminescence
3 Particulate Matter Annual* 60 60 1. Gravimetric
(Size <10µm) or PM10 24 Hours** 100 100 2. TEOM
µg/m3 3. Beta attenuation
4 Particulate Matter Annual* 40 40 1. Gravimetric
(Size <2.5 µm) or 2. TEOM
PM2.5 µg/m3 24 Hours ** 60 60 3. Beta attenuation
5 Ozone (O3), µg/m 3
8 hours** 100 100 1. UV photometric
1 hours ** 180 180 2. Chemiluminescence
3. Chemical Method
6 Lead (Pb), µg/m3 Annual * 0.50 0.50 1. AAS/ICP Method after sampling
using EPM 2000 or equivalent filter
24 Hour** 1.0 1.0 paper
2. ED-XRF using Teflon filter
7 Carbon Monoxide (CO), 8 Hours ** 02 02 Non dispersive Infra Red (NDIR)
mg/m3 1 Hour** 04 04
Spectroscopy
8 Ammonia (NH3), µg/m3 Annual* 100 100 1. Chemiluminescence
2. Indophernol blue method
24 Hour** 400 400
9 Benzene (C6H6) , µg/m3 Annual * 05 05 1. Gas chromatography based
continuous analyzer
2. Adsorption and Desorption
followed by GC analysis
10 Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP)- Annual* 01 01 Solvent extraction followed
particulate phase only, by HPLC/GC analysis
ng/m3
11 Arsenic (As), ng/m3 Annual* 06 06 AAS/ICP method after sampling on
EPM 2000 or equivalent filter
paper
12 Nickel (Ni), ng/m3 Annual* 20 20 AAS/ICP method after sampling on
EPM 2000 or equivalent filter
paper
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* Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval.** 24
hourly 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values, as applicable shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed
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the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.

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NOTE: Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days of monitoring exceed the limits specified above for the respective
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category, it shall be considered adequate reason to institute regular or continuous monitoring and further investigation.
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National Air Quality Index

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• National Air Quality Index (NAQI) has the objective of dissemination of Air Quality information to the public. Computation of AQI is
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done using real-time data of Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations.
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• The AQI consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb), it is calculated only if data are available
for minimum three pollutants out of which one should necessarily be either PM2.5 or PM10.

• The Sub-indices for individual pollutants at a monitoring location are calculated using its 24-hourly average concentration value
(8-hourly in case of CO and O3) and health breakpoint concentration range. The worst sub-index is the AQI for that location.

• Only when information about at least 3 pollutants with one of being PM2.5 or PM10 is known, AQI of a location is released.

• There are six AQI categories namely, Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe. The AQI values and
corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as associated likely health impacts are as follows:

AQI Category, Pollutants and Health Breakpoints

AQI Category PM10 PM2.5 NO2 O3 CO SO2 NH3 Pb 24-
(Range) 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr 24-hr 24-hr hr
8-hr
(mg/m3 )
Good (0-50) 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5

Satisfactory 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.5 –1.0
(51-100)

Moderately 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1- 10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0

polluted
(101-200)

Poor 251-350 91-120 181-280 169-208 10-17 381-800 801- 2.1-3.0

(201-300) 1200
Very poor 351- 121- 281- 209- 17-34 801- 1200- 3.1-3.5
(301-400) 430 250 400 748* 1600 1800

Severe 430 + 250+ 400+ 748+* 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+

(401-500)
 AQI Associated Health Impacts

Good (0–50) Minimal Impact

Satisfactory (51–100) May cause minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people.

Moderately polluted (101–200) May cause breathing discomfort to people with lung disease such as asthma, and
discomfort to people with heart disease, children and older adults.

Poor (201–300) May cause breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure, and discomfort to
people with heart disease
Very Poor (301–400) May cause respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure. Effect may be more
pronounced in people with lung and heart diseases.

Severe (401-500) May cause respiratory effects even on healthy people and serious health impacts on people
with lung/heart diseases. The health impacts may be experienced even during light physical
activity

Delhi NCR Pollution

Delhi and the surrounding National Capital Region (NCR) experience severe air pollution, particularly during the winter months. This
recurring crisis has significant health, environmental, and economic consequences.

Key Pollutants and Sources:

The primary pollutants contributing to Delhi's winter pollution include:
• Particulate Matter (PM2.5 and PM10): These microscopic particles, especially PM2.5, pose the most serious health risk as they
can penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream.
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): A toxic gas primarily emitted from vehicle exhaust and industrial processes. It can cause respiratory
problems and contribute to the formation of smog.
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Primarily comes from industrial emissions and coal-fired power plants. It can cause respiratory issues and
acid rain.

Factors Exacerbating Winter Pollution:

• Meteorological Conditions: During winters, the region experiences low wind
speeds and temperature inversions, trapping pollutants near the ground and
preventing their dispersion.
• Stubble Burning: The practice of burning crop residue in neighbouring states
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contributes significantly to air pollution in Delhi during the winter.
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o The Punjab Preservation of Sub-soil Water Act, 2009: an effort to

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beyond 10th June to escape periods of very evapotranspiration demands.

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o farmers are left with less time to prepare their fields for the wheat crop after
the paddy has been harvested, and resort to burning crop residue
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• Vehicular Emissions: The high density of vehicles in the region contributes

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significantly to air pollution throughout the year, particularly during winters due to
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increased traffic congestion.

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• Industrial Activities: Industrial emissions, particularly from small and medium-scale

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industries in the NCR, add to the pollution burden.

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• Construction and Dust: Construction activities and unpaved roads generate dust,
which further deteriorates air quality.
• Fireworks: Diwali celebrations lead to a spike in air pollution levels due to the
widespread use of firecrackers.

Impact on Health and Environment:

• Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases
• The most vulnerable groups, children and the elderly, are disproportionately affected by air pollution.
• Reduced Visibility: Smog and haze significantly reduce visibility, affecting transportation and daily life.
• Ecosystem Damage: Air pollution can harm crops, forests, and other vegetation, leading to biodiversity loss and ecological
imbalances.

Government Initiatives:
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): A set of measures implemented based on air quality levels to control pollution.
• Ban on Firecrackers: Restrictions on the sale and use of firecrackers during Diwali.
• Promotion of Clean Fuels: Encouraging the use of cleaner fuels like CNG and electric vehicles.
• Stricter Emission Norms: Implementing stricter emission standards for vehicles and industries.
• Crop Residue Management: Providing alternatives to stubble burning, such as in-situ management and biomass utilization.
• Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
o A statutory body constituted under ‘CAQM in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021’.
o Primary goal: To enhance coordination, conduct research, and identify and address issues related to air quality in the NCR
Challenges and Way Forward:
• Enforcement: Stricter enforcement of existing regulations and policies is crucial.
• Regional Cooperation: Addressing air pollution requires coordinated efforts from all states in the NCR and neighboring regions.
• Public Awareness: Raising public awareness about air pollution and its health impacts is vital to encourage behavioral changes.
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• Sustainable Solutions: Investing in long-term solutions like public transport, renewable energy, and green infrastructure is
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essential for sustainable air quality management.

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Cloud Seeding: Researchers discussed the possibility of using cloud seeding to tackle
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Delhi's air pollution.

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• A weather modification technique to enhance precipitation by dispersing

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substances into the air that help to saturate the clouds.

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• Chemicals used: Salts such as silver iodide (AgI), potassium iodide, sodium
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chloride, or dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)

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• Conditions required for cloud seeding to be effective:

o Clouds should cover at least 50% of the target area.
o Clouds do not form at wind speeds above a certain level.
o Less effective when relative humidity is less than 75%.
o Cold enough clouds needed to contain supercooled liquid water.

Air Pollution Control technologies

Control Technologies for Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter (PM) refers to a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Fine particles (PM2.5 and PM10) are
hazardous to health and are emitted from industrial processes, combustion of fossil fuels, and construction activities.

Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs)

• Working Principle: ESPs use electric fields to charge particles in the exhaust
gas stream. The charged particles are attracted to oppositely charged
collection plates, where they are removed from the gas flow.
• Applications: Widely used in power plants, cement plants, steel mills,
and paper industries
• Advantages: High efficiency (up to 99%) in removing fine particulate matter.
• Limitations: Requires significant energy for operation and frequent cleaning
of collection plates.
Fabric Filters (Baghouses)

• Working Principle: In fabric filters, polluted air is passed through filter bags,
which trap the particles. The clean air is then discharged, and the collected dust is
periodically removed from the bags.
• Applications: Used in industries like cement manufacturing, metallurgy,
pharmaceuticals, and food processing.
• Advantages: Very effective at capturing fine particles (PM2.5) with high filtration
efficiency.
• Limitations: Requires regular maintenance and replacement of filter bags.

Cyclone Separators

• Working Principle: Cyclones use centrifugal force to separate particles from gas streams. The
gas is forced into a spiral motion, causing particles to be flung to the outer wall, where they are
collected.
• Applications: Commonly used as pre-cleaners in dust collection systems and in industries
like agriculture, woodworking, and mining.
• Advantages: Low cost, simple design, and can handle large volumes of gas.
• Limitations: Less efficient at capturing fine particles (PM2.5) compared to ESPs and fabric
filters.

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Wet Scrubbers
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• Working Principle: Wet scrubbers use a liquid (usually water) to capture and remove
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particulate matter from gas streams. The particles are absorbed into or trapped by the liquid
droplets.
• Applications: Used in chemical industries, power plants, and waste incineration
facilities.
• Advantages: Can remove both particulate matter and gaseous pollutants. Effective for high-
temperature applications.
• Limitations: Creates wastewater that requires treatment.

Control Technologies for Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

Sulfur oxides (SOx), particularly sulfur dioxide (SO₂), are produced by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) in power plants,
industrial processes, and motor vehicles. SO₂ contributes to acid rain and
respiratory problems.

Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)

• Working Principle: FGD systems, also known as scrubbers, remove SO₂

from exhaust gases by reacting it with an alkaline sorbent such as
limestone or lime. The SO₂ is absorbed into the slurry, producing by-
products like gypsum.
• Applications: Commonly used in coal-fired power plants, oil
refineries, and smelting operations.
• Types:
o Wet FGD: Uses a liquid-based solution to absorb SO₂. Wet
scrubbers are the most commonly used FGD systems.
o Dry FGD: Uses a dry sorbent, reducing water usage and eliminating
wastewater treatment issues.
• Advantages: High efficiency (up to 95%) in removing SO₂.
• Limitations: Wet FGD systems can produce wastewater that needs treatment. High installation and operational costs.
Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primarily produced by high-temperature combustion processes in power plants, vehicles, and industrial
boilers. NOx contributes to the formation of smog and acid rain, and it is a precursor to ground-level ozone.

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

• Working Principle: SCR systems inject

a reagent (usually ammonia or urea)
into the exhaust stream, where it reacts
with NOx in the presence of a catalyst,
converting NOx into nitrogen (N₂) and
water (H₂O).
• Applications: Widely used in coal-fired
power plants, gas turbines, and
diesel engines.
• Advantages: High NOx removal efficiency (up to 90%).
• Limitations: Requires precise control of reagent injection and catalyst maintenance. The catalyst can degrade over time,
requiring replacement.

Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)

• Working Principle: SNCR is similar to SCR but

operates without a catalyst. A reagent (ammonia or
urea) is injected into the combustion gases at high
temperatures, where it reacts with NOx to form
nitrogen and water.
• Applications: Used in industrial furnaces,
boilers, and cement kilns.
• Advantages: Lower capital costs compared to SCR.
• Limitations: Lower NOx removal efficiency (30-
50%) compared to SCR and limited to specific
temperature ranges.

Low-NOx Burners om
• Working Principle: Low-NOx burners are designed to reduce NOx formation during combustion by controlling the air-to-fuel ratio
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and optimizing flame geometry.

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• Applications: Used in power plants, industrial boilers, and furnaces.

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• Advantages: Can reduce NOx formation at the source, reducing the need for downstream controls.
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• Limitations: May require retrofitting or replacement of existing burners.

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Control Technologies for Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

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Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from industrial processes such
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as painting, printing, chemical manufacturing, and the use of solvents. VOCs are
precursors to ground-level ozone and smog.

Activated Carbon Adsorption

• Working Principle: VOCs are removed by passing the contaminated air

through beds of activated carbon, which adsorbs the organic compounds. The
carbon can then be regenerated or disposed of.
• Applications: Used in chemical plants, paint industries, and petroleum
refineries.
• Advantages: Highly effective at removing a wide range of VOCs. Activated
carbon can be regenerated and reused.
• Limitations: Periodic replacement or regeneration of the carbon is required.

Catalytic Oxidizers

• Working Principle: Catalytic oxidizers use a catalyst to lower the required temperature for VOC oxidation (typically 300-500°C),
converting VOCs into harmless by-products.
• Applications: Used in industries that emit low concentrations of VOCs, such as food processing, pharmaceuticals, and
printing.
• Advantages: Lower operating temperatures and fuel costs compared to thermal oxidizers.
• Limitations: The catalyst can degrade over time and may require replacement.

Steps taken by the Government of India to tackle air pollution:

1. National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

Launched in January 2019, the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) is the central government’s flagship initiative to reduce air
pollution across the country.
Key Features:
• Target: To achieve a 20-30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 levels by 2024, compared to 2017 levels
o The Centre has set a new target of a 40% reduction in particulate matter concentration in cities covered under the National
Clean Air Programme (NCAP) by 2026 in 132 non-attainment cities
 • Monitoring and Compliance: Establishing an effective air quality monitoring network with over 1,200 real-time air quality
monitoring stations across the country to track air pollution levels and trends.
• City Action Plans: Each non-attainment city is required to develop and implement City Clean Air Action Plans, focusing on
pollution sources such as transportation, industries, and dust management.

2. Bharat Stage (BS) Emission Standards

India’s vehicular emissions standards have been progressively strengthened to limit air pollutants from vehicles.
Key Features:
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Standards:
o Implemented nationwide from April 2020, the BS-VI norms are comparable to Euro VI standards and represent a
significant leap in emissions control.
o These norms drastically reduce the permissible levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and
hydrocarbons from vehicles.
o Sulfur content in fuel was reduced from 50 parts per million (ppm) in BS-IV fuel to 10 ppm in BS-VI fuel.
• Introduction of Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems in diesel vehicles to reduce
particulate emissions.

3. Promotion of Electric Vehicles (EVs)

The Indian government has actively promoted the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) to reduce dependence on fossil fuel-driven vehicles
and curtail vehicular emissions.
Key Initiatives:
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme: Launched in 2015, FAME aims to
promote the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles through financial incentives, such as subsidies for EV buyers, establishment of
charging infrastructure, and R&D support.
o FAME II: With a budget of ₹10,000 crore, FAME II focuses on creating a robust EV ecosystem by offering incentives for 1
million electric two-wheelers, 500,000 electric three-wheelers, 55,000 electric four-wheelers, and 7,000 e-
buses.
• GST Reduction: The government reduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on electric vehicles from 12% to 5% to make
EVs more affordable.
• Battery Swapping Policy: The government is working on a policy for battery swapping to address concerns related to battery
charging and range limitations.

4. Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) (Covered Above)

5. Control of Industrial Pollution

• Emission Control Standards for Power Plants:
o The government has tightened emission norms for thermal power plants, particularly regarding SO₂, NOx, and PM
emissions.
• Online Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems (OCEMS):
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o OCEMS have been installed in industries to continuously monitor air pollution emissions, allowing for real-time data
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collection and enforcement of compliance.

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• Regulation of Brick Kilns:

o The introduction of cleaner technologies like the Zigzag Kiln Technology has reduced emissions from traditional brick
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6. Fly Ash Utilization

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• Fly ash is by-product of burning coal in thermal power plants.

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• It contains oxides of silica, alumina and calcium. Elements like Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, lead etc.
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• Utility of Fly ash:

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o Agriculture: Improves holding capacity of water

o Construction work: manufacturing of Portland cement, bricks/blocks/tiles manufacturing, road embankment construction
and low-lying area development
o Absorbents that are suitable for purification of waste gases
• Steps:
o Fly Ash Notification 2021 was issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986: Centre has made it
mandatory for such plants to ensure 100% utilization of ash in an eco-friendly manner.
• the non-compliant power plants will be imposed with an environmental compensation of Rs 1,000 per
tonne
• CPCB will be use the amount towards the safe disposal of the unutilised ash.
• power plants will have to deliver fly ash at project sites free of cost.

7. Stubble Burning Management

Stubble burning in the agricultural states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh contributes significantly to seasonal air pollution,
particularly in the Delhi-NCR region.
Key Initiatives:
• In-Situ Crop Residue Management:
o The government promotes mechanized solutions like Happy Seeders and Super Straw Management Systems, which
allow farmers to sow seeds without burning crop residue.
• Subsidies for Agricultural Equipment
• Public Awareness Campaigns

8. Promotion of Clean Cooking Fuels (Ujjwala Yojana)

The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) was launched in 2016 to provide clean cooking fuel (Liquefied Petroleum Gas, LPG) to
households that previously relied on polluting fuels like wood, coal, and cow dung.

9. Development of Green Mobility and Public Transport

Encouraging the use of public transport with metro rail expansion, Electric Buses and non-motorized transport (like cycling and
walking) is a key strategy for reducing vehicular emissions.

10. Afforestation and Green Belt Development

• Initiatives like the Green India Mission focus on increasing green cover, which helps absorb air pollutants like CO₂ and
particulates, contributing to better air quality.