Chapter 2: Shell Momentum Balances and Velocity

Distributions in Laminar Flow

•Laminar flow •Turbulent flow

2.1 Shell Momentum Balances and Boundary Conditions

Momentum balance over a thin “shell” of fluid, for steady flow:
Steady state momentum balance over a thin “shell” of fluid.
Here, we deal with system involving
One velocity component
One spatial dependence
Rectilinear flow
Steady state
Follow the following procedure:
Identify the non-vanishing velocity component and the spatial variable on which it
depends.
Write momentum balance over a thin shell perpendicular to the relevant spatial
variable.
Obtain the differential equation.
Integrate to obtain momentum flux distribution
Insert Newton’s law of viscosity.
Obtain velocity distribution.
Obtain maximum velocity, average velocity, etc.
Constant of integration - using boundary
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A T Jameel, ChED, AMU Aligarh. 2
Commonly used boundary conditions
1. At solid-fluid interface - no slip condition.
2. At liquid-liquid interface – at constant x, and are continuous. Also ,
and are continuous.
3. At liquid-gas interface; of constant x, – = 0,provided that gas-side velocity
gradient is not too large.

It is presumed above that no material passes through the interface.

Fig. 2.2-1: Falling film experiment
Simple Flow Problems:
2.2 Flow of a Falling Film
Examples:
•wetted wall towers.
•evaporation and gas absorption.
•coatings.
Assume constant viscosity and density of the fluid.
Consider flow down an inclined plate of length, L and width,
W.
End disturbance can be neglected if W and L >> δ film
thickness.
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Figure: Sketch of the falling-film flow, including the thin shell of thickness
∆x, overwhich the z momentum balance is made. Also shown are the viscous
momentum-flux distribution τxz(x) and the velocity distribution vz(x).

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 Slice of thickness over which momentum
balance is made. The y-axis is pointing
outward from the plane of paper.

From Table B.1:

We select our ‘system’ as a thin shell

perpendicular to the x-direction and then
set up a z-momentum balance over this
shell.

Fig. 2.2-2: Flow of viscous isothermal liquid

film under the influence of gravity with no
rippling.
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 Fig. 2.2-3. Three-dimensional sketch
of the shell of thickness ∆x over which
the z momentum balance is made.
The arrows show the rates of
momentum transport—momentum-
flux components multiplied by the
corresponding face areas—into and
out of the shell. Note that the arrows
always point in the directions of the
positive coordinate axes.

rate of z-momentum in across surface at (2.2-1)

rate of z-momentum out across surface at (2.2-2)

rate of z-momentum in across surface at x (2.2-3)

rate of z-momentum out across surface at x+Δx (2.2-4)

gravity force acting on fluid in the z direction (2.2-5)

Substituting in Eq. (2.1-1):

Momentum in – momentum out + gravity = 0

(2.2-6)

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Dividing throughout by and taking limit as we get
(2.2-7)

Or (2.2-8)

Using the definition of 𝜙𝜙,

(2.2-9a)

(2.2-9b)

Assumptions: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Eq. (2.2-8)

(2.2-10)

⟶ momentum flux

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Most general form of the shell balance equation
(expanded form of the momentum fluxes)

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On integration, it gives,
(2.2-11)

At the gas-liquid interface,

B.C.1: at
(2.2-12)

in Eq. (2.2-11).

Therefore, momentum flux distribution is given by,

(2.2-13)

And is shown in Fig. 2.2-3

Then we substitute Newton’s law of viscosity in the above Eq.,

(2.2-14) (2.2-15)

differential equation for velocity distribution.

Integrating above Eq.,

(2.2-16)

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No-slip at solid-liquid interface
B.C.2: at (2.2-17)

Substituting B.C.2 into Eq. (2.2-16) gives,

Eq. (2.2-16) ⟹
(2.2-18)

At

At

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Parabolic velocity profile as shown in Fig. 2.2-2

(i) maximum velocity (at )

(2.2-19)

(ii) average velocity over a cross section of the film:

(2.2-20)

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(iii) the mass rate of flow, w:

(2.2-21)

(iv) the film thickness, δ:

(2.2-22)

The shear force on the solid surface,

⟹z-component of the weight of the fluid in the entire film.

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For falling films,

Derivation:

The three flow regimes for falling films flows.

Laminar flow with negligible rippling

Laminar flow with pronounced rippling

Turbulent flow
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Ex.2.2-2: Falling Film with Variable Viscosity
Given

Derive the expression for the average velocity of a non-isothermal falling film, e.g., flow of a
condensate down a wall with a linear temperature gradient through the film.
Solution:
Applying the shell momentum balance as before, we arrive at

(2.2-13)
Newton’s law can be written as;
can be integrated by parts

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Using B.C. at the solid wall,
At

Thus;

Check:
For constant viscosity case

To overcome the above problem, lets expand the exponential term in Taylor series given
by: Expanding about the point

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Thus, expanding and using Taylor series, in Eq. (2.2 – 2.27), we get:

(2.2-28)

Similarly,

(2.2-29)
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2.3 Flow Through a Circular Tube
Cylindrical coordinate systems
Assumptions:
•Steady-state laminar flow
•Constant
•Flow downward due to pressure difference
and gravity
• negligible end effects
•

From Table B.1, only non-vanishing component

of is:

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We apply momentum balance to an cylindrical shell of thickness and length L.

Rate of z-momentum
in at (2.3-1)

Rate of z-momentum
out at (2.3-2)

Rate of z-momentum
in at (2.3-3)

Rate of z-momentum
out at (2.3-4)

Gravity in z-direction (2.3-5)

and account for the momentum transport by convective and molecular mode.

(2.3-6)
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Dividing throughout by and taking limit as we get:

(2.3-7)

Or
(2.3-8)

From Appendix B.1:

(2.3-9a)

(2.3-9b)

Hence equation (2.3-8) given:

(2.3-10)

where:
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Integrating; On integration;

(2.3-16)
B.C.2: at
Or (2.3-11)

B.C.1: at (2.3-12)
(2.3-17)
(2.3-13)

From A-B.2: Thus:

(2.3-18)
(2.3-14)
Parabolic velocity distribution for laminar,
incompressible Newtonian fluid in a long
(13)&(14) => tube
(2.3-15)

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Fig. 2.3-2. The viscous momentum-flux distribution τrz(r) and velocity
distribution vz(r) for the downward flow in a circular tube.

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Other Parameters of Interest:
(i) Maximum velocity, occurs at

(2.3-19)

(ii) Average velocity,

(2.3-20)
(iii) Mass Flow Rate, :

(2.3-21)

Hagen – Poiseuille Eqn.

In a capillary flow viscometer, if and are measured, can be calculated

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(iv) The z – component of the force, of the fluid on the wetted surface of the pipe is;

(2.3-22)
Assumptions made in obtaining Hagen-Poiseulli Law:
Laminar flow
Constant density (incompressible flow)
Steady flow
Newtonian liquid
End effects are negligible,
Fluid behave as continuum
No-slip at the tube wall
Homework: Ex. 2.3-2 (Workout yourself)

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EXAMPLE 2.3-3: Tube-Branching in Poiseuille Flow in Blood Vessels
A tube of radius R1 branches into two tubes of equal radii R2. Find the ratio R2∕R1
when it is required that the wall shear stress be the same in all the tubes. It has been
established that this requirement follows from a minimum principle that appears to be
applicable to the bifurcation of blood vessels in the human body.
Solution:

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Tube-Branching in Poiseuille Flow in Blood Vessels ….

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Flow Through an Annulus

Fluid is flowing upward in the annular region

bounded by radii kR and R.
Postulates:

Same as in the case of flow through cylinder, a

momentum balance over a thin cylindrical shell
of liquid, gives:

(2.4-1)

Here;

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Integration gives;

(2.4-2)

To determine C1, say at:

i.e., (maximum in ).

From Table B.1,

Eq. 2.4-2 →

or

Substitute in Eq. (2.4-2):

Or

(2.4-4) (2.4-5)

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Integrating;

(2.4-6)

λ and can be evaluated by using no slip B.C.:

B.C.1: at (2.4-7)
B.C.2: at (2.4-8)

Eq. (2.4-6) & B.C.1 →

Or
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Eq. (2.4-6) & B.C.1 →

(2.4-9,10)
Solving (9) & (10) →

(2.4-11,12)

Momentum flux distribution, from Eq. (4):

(2.4-13)

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Velocity distribution, from Eq. (2.4-6) is:

(2.4-14)
(i) Maximum velocity:

(2.4-15)
(i) Average velocity:

(2.4-16)
(ii) Mass Flow Rate ( )

(2.4-17)
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(iv) The force exerted by the fluid on the two solid surfaces is:

(2.4-18)

Choice of sign in

From Eq. (2.4-4):

For say where

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From Eq. (2.4-18):
As k → 0, same as for cylinder.

equivalent diameter = 4RH

Laminar →

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Flow of Two Adjacent Immiscible Fluids
 Flow with liquid-liquid interface
Problem Statement:
Two immiscible, incompressible liquids are flowing in the z-direction in a horizontal thin slit
of length L and width W under the influence of pr. gradient The fluid flow rates are
adjusted such that the slit is half filled with fluid I and another half with fluid II (less dense
phase). The velocities are such that interface remain planar. Find the momentum-flux and
velocity distribution.

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For the purpose of momentum balance, consider a thin shell perpendicular to the x-
direction in the upper layer. Then we set up a z-momentum balance over this shell.

Rate of z-momentum in across surface

at

z- momentum out at

z- momentum in at

z- momentum out at

z- momentum balance:

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Dividing throughout by and taking limit as one obtains;

where

As before, we can make the postulate,

Then;

Øzz = (Þo-ÞL)

The z-momentum balance is:

or
(2.5-1)
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Similar equation can be obtained for the other phase (layer), writing this equation for
layers I & II.

(2.5-2) (2.5-3)
B.C.1 continuity of the momentum flux at the interface.

B.C.1: at (2.5-4)

Substituting for we get:

(2.5-5) (2.5-6)

After integration,

(2.5-7) (2.5-8)

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No-slip Boundary Conditions:

B.C.2: at B.C.3: at B.C.4: at

B.C.2 → (2.5-12)

B.C.3 → (2.5-13)

B.C.4 → (2.5-14)

(2.5-15) (2.5-16)
The resulting profiles are:

(2.5-17) (2.5-18)

(2.5-19)
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For

If both viscosities are the same, then the velocity distribution is parabolic, as one
would expect for a pure fluid flowing between parallel plates (see Prob. 2B.4).

Average Velocity

Calculate, the Vmax, velocity at interface, the plane of zero shear stress, and drag on
the walls of the slit

a) The plane of zero shear stress

Putling τxz = 0 in (Eq. 2.5-17)

=> x/b = ½ (µ|-µ||)/(µ|+µ||)

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b) This will also correspond to the maximum velocity. The maximum velocity will be obviously in
the less viscous layer, VzII ,max

c) Velocity at the interface

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d) the force exerted by the fluid on the walls of the slit.
At the lower plate, x= -b,
(𝑝𝑝0 −𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 )𝑏𝑏 3𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 =
2𝐿𝐿 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

The shear force at the lower plate at x= -b,

(𝑝𝑝0 −𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 )𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧|𝑥𝑥=−𝑏𝑏 = 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥=−𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
2 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

The shear force at the upper plate at x= b,

(𝑝𝑝0 −𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 )𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 3𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧|𝑥𝑥=𝑏𝑏 = 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥=𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
2 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼 + 𝜇𝜇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

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Solution: Q. 2B4 (Introductory TP-BSLK)

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Solution Q. 2B4 (BSLK)

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Solution: Q. 2B.4 (BSLK)

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Q. 2B.1 (BSLK)

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 FLOW IN A CONE-AND-PLATE VISCOMETER
 Cone-and-plate viscometer consists of a stationary circular flat
plate of radius R, and a rotating cone, which can be used to
measure the viscosity of liquids (see Fig. 2.6-1).
 The cone is positioned so that the cone tip would just contact
the center of the plate (see Fig. 2.6-2(a)). The angle between
the cone and the plate is , which is quite small—from 1 to 5
degrees in commercial instruments.
 A liquid, whose viscosity is to be measured, is placed in the
gap between the cone and the plate. The cone is made to
rotate with an angular velocity Ω,and the torque Tz required
to turn the cone is measured.
 We want to find the relation between Ω, Tz, R, 𝜓𝜓0 and the
viscosity μ. This relation may be used to determine the liquid
viscosity from experimental measurements.
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 Fig. 2.6-1. Cone-and-plate
viscometer. The plate remains fixed,
and the cone is rotated at 1 rad/s.
Fig. 2.6-2. (a) side view of the
instrument, (b) top view of the cone-
plate system, showing a differential
element r dr dϕ,
(c) an approximate velocity
distribution within the differential
region. To equate the systems in
(a)and (c), we identify the following
equivalences:

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• We use spherical coordinates to solve this problem.
• r is the distance outward from the point of contact of the
cone and plate.
• φ is the direction of rotational motion of the cone,
• θ is the angle downward from a line perpen-dicular to the
plate. These variables are shown in Figs. 2.6-2(a)and (b). Thus,
in spherical coordinates, the cone and the plate are both
surfaces of constant θ (the cone surface is at θ = π/2 − 𝜓𝜓0 and
the plate surface is at θ = π/2.
• It is assumed that the flow is only in φ direction.
• Let ψ = π/2 − θ, is the angle measured upward from the plate.
• For the steady flow in spherical coordinates, we postulate that
𝑣𝑣𝜙𝜙 = 𝑣𝑣𝜙𝜙 r, θ , 𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟 = 0, 𝑣𝑣𝜃𝜃 = 0

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• Because this flow is not rectilinear, we cannot employ the
shell momentum balance to obtain an exact solution to this
flow problem.
• However, we can obtain an approximate solution for small
cone angles 𝜓𝜓0 because the flow at any radial position will be,
locally, approximately rectilinear; that is, at any radial
position, the fluid is bounded below by the stationary plate
and bounded above by the nearly parallel cone, which locally
appears to translate in a uniform direction.
• The velocity profile at any radial position can then be
determined approximately by applying a momentum balance
for a rectilinear flow in an appropriate Cartesian coordinate
system.

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• Let us focus on a small volume of liquid at a position r, that
extends from a surface area element 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙 on the plate
upward to the cone as depicted in Figs. 2.6-2(a)and(b).
• Locally we can regard the flow as being very nearly that of the
steady, rectilinear flow in Fig. 2.6-2(c), where the fluid is
between parallel plates separated by a distance b and the top
plate moves in the +x direction with speed 𝑣𝑣0 . The variables in
the Cartesian coordinate system of Fig. 2.6-2(c) are related to
variables in the spherical coordinate system of Figs. 2.6-2(a)
and (b) as described in Table 2.6-1.
• The velocity profile 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 (𝑦𝑦) in Fig. 2.6-2(c) can be obtained by
using a shell x momentum balance (Problem 2B.1). The
resulting velocity profile is,

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Flow Around a Sphere

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In the last equation, the quantity p0 is the pressure in the plane z = 0 far
away from the sphere. The term − ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure
resulting from the weight of the fluid, and the term containing v∞ is the
contribution of the fluid motion.

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Let us now determine the force exerted by the flowing fluid on the sphere.
Because of the symmetry around the z axis, the resultant force will be in
the z direction. Therefore, the force can be obtained by integrating the z
components of the normal and tangential forces over the sphere surface.

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Hence, the total force F exerted by the fluid on the sphere in the +z
direction is given by the sum of Eqs. 2.7-9 and 2.7-12

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Eq. (2.7-15) is known as Stokes’ law.1 It is used in describing the
motion of colloidal particles under an electric field, in the theory of
sedimentation, and in the study of the motion of aerosol particles.
Stokes’ law is useful only up to a Reynolds number of
about 0.1. At Re = 1, Stokes’ law predicts a force that is about 10
per cent low.

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