Module – 3: Manufacturing Process, Additive Manufacturing and

Automation

7. CASTING, WELDING & BRAZING

7.1 CASTING
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CASTING
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring
molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify.
When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the
mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this process,
intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other
manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten
metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.

Figure 7.1 Casted components

7.1.2 TERMINOLOGIES IN CASTING

a. Mould box: It is usually a metallic frame used for making for holding a sand mould. The
mould box has two parts. The upper part is called “Cope” and the lower part is called “Drag”.
b. Parting line: It is the zone of separation between a cope & drag position of the mould in
sand casting.
c. Sprue/Runner: It is a vertical passage through which the molten metal will enter the gate.
d. Pouring basin: The enlarge position of the sprue with its top into which the molten metal
is poured.
e. Gate: It is a short passageway which carries the molten metal from the runner sprue into
the mould cavity.
 Figure 7.2 mold box and terminologies
f. Riser: A riser or a feed head is a vertical passage that stores the molten metal and supplies
the same to the casting as it solidifies.
g. Mould cavity: The space in a mould that is filled with molten metal to form the casting
upon solidification.
h. Core: A core is performed by using a mass of sand placed in the mould cavity to form
hollow cavity in the castings.
i. Core print: It is a projection attached to the pattern to help for support and correct location
of core in the mould cavity.

7.1.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A CASTING

1. Pattern
2. Mould preparation
3. Core making
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning and Inspection
1. Pattern
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be
made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow,
additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished product. The
quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and
construction. The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the
casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is
substantial. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic,
plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins.
 Figure 7.3 Steps in Sand moulding process

2. Mould preparation
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal. It
involves for making a cavity by packing sand around a pattern enclosed in a supporting
metallic frame. When the pattern is removed from the mould an exact shaped cavity remains
into which the molten metal is poured. Gating and risering are provided at suitable locations
in the mould.
3. Core making
Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These
impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be
made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose.
The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which
the sand core rests during pouring of the mold.
4. Melting and pouring
Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and poured into the
mould cavity. Many factors like temperature of molten metal, pouring time, turbulence, etc
should be considered while making & pouring.
 Figure 7.4 Sand Moulding
5. Cleaning and Inspection
After the molten metal is solidified and cooled, the rough casting is removed from the mould,
cleaned and dressed (removing cores, adhered sand particles, gating, riser, fins, blisters, etc.
from the casting surface) and then sent for inspection to check for dimensions or defects like
blow holes, crakes, etc.

7.1.3 COMPONENTS PRODUCED BY CASTING PROCESS

To list the components produced by casting is an endless process, a few major components
produce by casting are given below:

Figure 7.5 Casted Metallic Parts

a. Automotive sector: A few parts like brake drum, cylinder, cylinder linings, pistons, engine
blocks, universal joints, rocker arms, brackets, etc.
b. Aircraft: Turbine blades, casing, etc.
c. Marine: Propeller blades
d. Machining: Cutting tools, machine beds, wheels and pulleys, blocks, table for supports
e. Agriculture & railroad equipment’s: Pumps and compressor, frames, valves, pipes and
fittings for construction.
f. Camera frame, parts in washing machine, refrigerator & air-conditioners
g. Steel utensil & a wide variety of products.

7.1.4 ADVANTAGES-DISADVANTAGES - APPLICATIONS OF CASTING

Advantages:
• Casting is the basic and versatile (flexible) manufacturing process.
• Large, hollow & intricate shapes can be easily cast.
• Casting provides freedom of design with respect to shape, size and quality of the
product.
• Some metals that cannot be machined can be produced by casting to the required
shape.
• Heavy objects can be produced only by casting process.
• Casting process is most suitable for mass production.
• Parts with close dimensional tolerance & ready to use can be produced by special
casting methods.
Disadvantages:
• Casting process is an elaborate process and involves a greater number of operations.
• It requires large infrastructure like casting section, melting, pattern, core section,
cleaning, finishing, and inspection.
• Very high investment is required.
• Casting process is not economical & viable for small scale operations.
• The manpower requirement is large.
• High care is required in handling chemicals and molten metal.
• Very difficult to cast thin sections.

Application of castings in different fields

• Transport: Automobile, aerospace, railways and shipping
• Heavy Equipment: Construction, farming and mining
• Machine Tools: Machining, casting, plastics molding, forging, extrusion and forming
• Plant Machinery: Chemical, petroleum, paper, sugar, textile, steel and thermal plants
• Defense: Vehicles, artillery, munitions, storage and supporting equipment
• Electrical Equipment Machines: Motors, generators, pumps and compressors
• Hardware: Plumbing industry pipes, joints, valves and fittings
• Household: Appliances, kitchen and gardening equipment, furniture and fittings
 • Art Objects: Sculptures, idols, furniture, lamp stands and decorative items

7.1.5 CASTING DEFECTS

Casting process involves a number of variables, and a loss of control in any of these variables
can cause defects under certain circumstances. Some of the common casting defects, their
features and remedies to prevent such defects are discussed below.
(a) Shrinkage defect
Shrinkage is a void on the surface of the castings resulting from contraction or shrinkage of
metal during solidification. Although a riser is used to overcome the shrinkage effect, in some
cases it fails to feed the molten metal efficiently to the casting as it solidifies.

Figure 7.6 Shrinkage defect

Remedies
• Use large sprue and riser to promote directional solidification.
• Locate risers and gating systems in correct positions.
• Gates to be cut as wide as possible.
(b) Porosity defect (Blow hole and Pin hole)
Molten metal absorbs gases from various sources such as fluxes, moisture in sand, binders,
additives and normal atmospheric gases like oxygen and nitrogen. If these gases are not
allowed to escape, they get entrapped in the mould cavity forming small balloon shaped voids
or cavities leading to porosity defect in castings. Two types of gas related defects occur in
castings. They are blow hole and pin hole defect.
Blow holes occur below the surface of the castings and are not visible from the outside
surface. Refer figure (a). On the other hand, pin holes are small gas cavities, many in number
at or slightly below the surface of the casting. Refer figure (b).
Remedies
• Avoid excess ramming of mould.
• Provide proper vent holes.
• Avoid use of excess carbonaceous or other organic material in the sand/core binders,
because these materials react with the molten metal producing large amount of gases.
 Figure 7.7 Porosity
(c) Misrun
Misrun occur when the mould cavity is not fully filled with molten metal. In other words, it is
a defect wherein a casting solidifies before the molten metal completely fills the cavity.
Remedies
• Fluidity of metal should be maintained suitably.
• Pouring rate and time should be controlled.
• Thin sections should be suitable designed.

Figure 7.8 Misrun

(d) Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate the sand mould/core (into the voids
between the sand particles). A fused aggregate of metal and sand appears on the surface of
the casting leading to defect.
Remedies
• Sand should be properly rammed.
• Moulding sand/core sand should not be too coarse to promote metal penetration.
• Control proper metal temperature. Fluidity of molten metal should be maintained
suitably.
 Figure 7.9 Penetration
(e) Mould shift (Mismatch)
It is a step produced in the cast product along the parting line due to the sidewise relative
displacement of cope and drag box.
Remedies
• Proper alignment of cope and drag box.
• Proper handling of assembled cope and drag box during operations.

Figure 7.10 Mismatch

(f) Cold shut
Two portions of metal flow together, but lack of fusion due to premature freezing results in a
defect known as cold shut.

Figure 7.11 Cold Shut

Remedies
• Place gates and risers at proper locations.
• Metal fluidity should be high.
(g) Hot tears
A hot tear is an internal or external ragged discontinuity formed in the casting due to the
pulling action of the metal just after it has solidified.
Remedies
• Provide adequate fillets at sharp corners while designing the component.
• Proper metallurgical and pouring temperature to be maintained.

Figure 7.12 Hot Tear

7.1.6 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified
in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be
made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid
rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
1. Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of
two types:
i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state
to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid
metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in
solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts
to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must
be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern.
2. Draft or Taper Allowance
The taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without
excessive rapping by the molder is known as draft. Figure 7.6 is an illustration of a pattern
having proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting commences, all of its
surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus, the pattern can be removed without
damaging the mold cavity.

Figure 7.13 Pattern having draft on vertical edges

3. Machining or Finish Allowance
The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension.
4. Distortion or Camber Allowance
Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For
example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at
the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by
making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the
casting after distortion will have its sides vertical.

Figure 7.14 Distortions in casting

5. Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces
to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final
casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account
for this increase.
Problem 1:
A job shown in the Figure is to be made of steel by casting process. The mould for this job is
made from a wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden pattern. Assume
machining allowance of 2 mm on each side, shrinkage allowance of 2% and a taper
allowance of 1 degree.

Solution:
It is given that machining allowance of 2 mm on each side is to be given. Thus, each side is
increased by 2 mm resulting in the basic dimension of the pattern. The required casting is
shown with dotted lines.

We decide to cast the job horizontally and use a solid pattern for this casting. For this design,
the draft allowance is to be provided on the vertical sides (24 mm long). Considering the
given taper allowance of 1 degree, the side view of the pattern would be as shown in Figure
below.
The taper allowance value x is calculated from the geometry of the Figure below as
X = 24 tan (1) = 0.419 mm.
Thus, the top surface dimension is increased to provide for draft allowance from 54 x 84 mm
to 54.838 x 84.838 mm.

Given shrinkage allowance is 2%. Now, the dimensions of pattern are increased by 2% on all
sides. That is, dimension 54 mm will become 54 + (54 x 2)/100 = 55.08 mm or 55.1 mm. The
dimension 54.838 will become 54.838 + (54.838 x 2)/100 = 55.9 mm
Similarly, all other dimensions are calculated and the final dimensions of the pattern are
shown in Figure below.
Problem 2:

Determine the dimensions of the pattern for casting the component shown in figure.
Shrinkage allowance is 20 mm/m, machining allowance on all surfaces and bore is 1 mm and
0.75 and 1 degree draft allowance for external and internal dimensions respectively.

Solution:

Pattern Dimensions:

Length = 200 mm
Width = 100 mm
Height = 150 mm
Diameter of Hole = 60 mm

Machining allowance:

Given Machining Allowance = 1 mm

Length = 200 + 1+1 = 202 mm
Width = 100 + 1+1 = 102 mm
Height = 150 + 1+1 = 152 mm
Diameter of Hole = 60 – 2 = 58 mm
Taper or Draft allowance:

Since taper allowance is given to vertical surfaces, diminutions of the top surface only
changes and bottom surface remains same.

Given Taper Allowance = 0.75 degree (External)

Top surface dimensions,
Length = 202 + 2 x 152 tan (0.75)
202 + 3.93 = 205.93 mm
Width = 102 + 2 x 152 tan (0.75)
102 + 3.93 = 105.93 mm
Bottom surface dimensions,
Length = 202 mm
Width = 102 mm

Given Taper Allowance = 1 degree (Internal)

Diameter of Hole at the top surface = 58 - 2 x 152 tan (1)
= 58 - 5.24 = 52.76 mm
Diameter of Hole at the bottom = 58 mm

Shrinkage allowance:
Given Shrinkage Allowance = 20 mm/m = 20/1000 = 0.02
Top surface dimensions,
Length = 205.93 + 205.93 x 0.02 = 210 mm
Width = 105.93 + 105.93 x 0.02 = 108 mm
Diameter of Hole = 52.76 - 52.76 x 0.02 = 51.7 mm
Bottom surface dimensions,
Length = 202 + 202 x 0.02 = 206 mm
Width = 102 + 102 x 0.02 = 104 mm
Diameter of Hole = 58 - 58 x 0.02 = 56.8mm
Problem 4:

Determine the dimensions of the pattern for casting the component shown in figure. Consider
pattern allowances as follows. Shrinkage allowance is 10 mm/m, machining allowance of 1
mm on all surfaces and draft or taper allowance of 0.75 degree.

Solution:

Pattern Dimensions:

Length = 120 mm
Width = 80 mm
Height = 100 mm

Machining allowance:

Given Machining Allowance = 1 mm

Length = 120 + 1+1 = 122 mm
Width = 80 + 1+1 = 82 mm
Height = 100 + 1+1 = 102 mm

Taper or Draft allowance:

Since taper allowance is given to vertical surfaces, diminutions of the top surface only
changes and bottom surface remains same.
Given Taper Allowance = 0.75 degree
Top surface dimensions,
 Length = 122 + 2 x 102 tan (0.75)
122 + 2.62 = 124.62 mm
Width = 82 + 2 x 102 tan (0.75)
82 + 2.62 = 84.62 mm
Bottom surface dimensions,
Length = 122 mm
Width = 82 mm

Shrinkage allowance:
Given Shrinkage Allowance = 10 mm/m = 10/1000 = 0.01
Height = 102 + 102 x 0.02 = 104 mm
Top surface dimensions,
Length = 124.62 + 124.62 x 0.01 = 125.9 mm
Width = 84.62 + 84.62 x 0.01 = 85.5 mm
Bottom surface dimensions,
Length = 122 + 122 x 0.01 = 124.2 mm
Width = 82 + 82 x 0.01 = 82.8 mm
Review Questions

1. With the help of neat sketch, explain the process of preparing a sand mould by the
hand moulding method.
2. What is a pattern? Why and how a pattern may differ in shape and size, to some
extent, in many cases, from the casting/cast product?
3. Name and discuss about pattern allowances
4. Name and state about various types of pattern materials that are used in foundry
practice
5. Define Casting? Briefly explain the steps involved in making a sand casting.
6. Name the steps involved in making a casting.
7. What are the applications of casting?
8. List the allowances of pattern.
9. Enumerate the casting defects and suggest suitable remedies.
10. Define shrinkage allowance
11. List the various sand casting defects.
12. Summarize the casting defects, causes and remedies.
13. Explain the steps involved in sand moulding process with a neat sketch?
14. With the help of neat sketch, explain the process of preparing a sand mould by the
hand moulding method.
15. List any four casting defects and give their causes and remedies.
16. What are the different pattern allowances?
17. With neat sketch explain sand casting process and give its applications
18. A job shown in Figure below is to be made from steel by casting process. The mold
for this job is made from wooden pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden
pattern assuming machining allowance of 3 mm on each side, shaking allowance of 1
mm on length and width, shrinkage allowance of 3%

(Ans: L = 88.58 – 1 = 87.58 mm, W = 47.38 – 1 = 46.38 mm, H = 37.08 mm)

7.2 WELDING

7.2.1 ARC WELDING

It is a fusion welding process. Here an electric arc is used as the heat source. An
electric arc is a continuous stream of electron flowing between two electrodes into a
medium. This gives rise to intense heat generation. This is used to melt the surface and
deposit the metal from the electrode resulting in a joint on cooling.

7.2.2 PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING

The source of heat for arc welding process is an ‘electric arc’ generated between two
electrically conducting materials. One of the workpiece materials called electrode is
connected to one pole of the electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms the
second conducting material is connected to the other pole of the circuit.

Figure 7.15 Components of Arc welding process

When an arc is struck between a metal electrode and the work, the arc heats the metal
and forms a pool of liquid. The electrode material can be either non-consumable or
consumable. The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite, etc., serve only
strike the arc, whereas the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as
that of workpiece strike the arc and gets consumed. The electrode gets consumed as and
when the metal is deposited. The liquid pool of metal mixes the work and becomes a
part of it. On cooling, solid metal of homogeneous bond results. A joint is formed. The
distance between the tip of the electrode and the work through which arc is formed is
termed as ‘arc length’.

7.2.3 WELDING ELECTRODE

An electrode is a metal wire that is coated. It is made out of materials with a similar
composition to the metal being welded. There are a variety of factors that go into choosing
the right electrode for each project. Electrodes need to be stored in a moisture-free
environment and carefully removed from any package (follow the directions to avoid
damage).
 Figure 7.16 Welding rods

When molten metal is exposed to air, it absorbs oxygen and nitrogen and becomes brittle or is
otherwise adversely affected. A slag cover is needed to protect molten or to solidify weld
metal from the atmosphere. This cover can be obtained from the electrode coating. The
composition of the welding electrode coating determines its usability, the composition of the
deposited weld metal, and the electrode specification.
The metal-arc electrodes may be grouped and classified as bare or thinly coated electrodes
and shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes. The covered electrode is the most popular type
of filler metal used in arc welding. The composition of the electrode covering determines the
usability of the electrode, the composition of the deposited weld metal, and the specification
of the electrode.
The type of electrode used depends on the specific properties required in the weld deposited.
These include corrosion resistance, ductility, high tensile strength, the type of base metal to
be welded, the position of the weld (flat, horizontal, vertical, or overhead), and the type of
current and polarity required.

Advantages of Arc Welding:

1. It is suitable for high-speed welds.
2. It can work on AC or DC.
3. Portability as a result of the simple equipment.
4. It is a fast welding process when compared to others.
5. It offers strong joints.
6. Produces very little distortion.
7. It has the ability to weld on porous and dirty metal.
8. Equipment used in arc welding is inexpensive.

Disadvantages of Arc Welding:

1. Cannot be used for reactive metal like Aluminium or Titanium.
2. Not suitable for welding thin metals.
3. It is hazardous when not performed under the safety and security guidelines.
4. It is a difficult task to dismantle the joined material through welding.
5. Requires skilled labor and electric supply.

7.2.4 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

An arc is struck between the non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece in the
 presence of an inert gas such as helium or argon, which is passed near the arc thereby
creates a shield. This is referred to as Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG). A filler rod is
used to supply molten metal to the joint. Fig. shows the TIG welding. Pressure of the gas
varies between 0.1 to 0.15 N/mm2. Mainly DC supply is used.

7.17 TIG welding process

Advantages:
• Suitable for thin metals.
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have greater control over the weld.
• Strong and high quality of joints are obtained.
• No flux is used, no slag formation, results in clean weld joint.

Disadvantages:
• TIG is most difficult process compared to all the other welding process.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
• Not suitable for thick metals.

7.2.5 APPLICATIONS
TIG welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and non-ferrous materials
such as aluminium and magnesium. Aerospace industry is one of the primary users,
refrigerators, air conditioners and chemical plants are other users.
 Figure 7.18 TIG Welded Parts

7.2.6 METAL INERT GAS WELDING (MIG)

Metal inert gas welding, in which the workpiece is joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a metal consumable electrode (uncoated) and the workpiece in
the presence of an inert gas, which is a mixture of argon & carbon dioxide. The
consumable metal electrode itself will supply the required metal. No filler is required.

Figure 7.19 MIG welding Process

Advantages:
• MIG welding is fast and economical.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed.
• No flux is used, no slag formation, clean weld is obtained.
• Process can be automated.
Disadvantages:
• Equipment is costlier.
• Dross & porosity are the most prevalent quality problem.

Some of the applications of MIG welding:

Used for most types of sheet metal welding, Fabrication of pressure vessels and steel
structures, Automotive industry and home improvement industry.

Questions for Review

1. With a neat sketch explain the basic principle of electric arc welding. Label the sketch
showing the details of the equipment used.
2. Explain the functions of shielding gases in arc welding. Name some shielding gases
used in arc welding.
3. Explain the various functions that can be served by coating of the coated electrode.
4. State about benefits and limitations of i) TIG welding ii) MIG welding.
5. Explain the function of flux in welding.
6. Explain the principle of Arc welding. What are the various weld positions in arc
welding? Enumerate some defects due to Arc welding.
7. Compare MIG and TIG welding in respect to their principle of working and field of
application.
8. Demonstrate metal inert Gas arc welding process with a neat sketch.
9. Compare and contrast the difference between welding and brazing.
7.3 BRAZING
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Brazing is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal whose
melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting point of the base metal.
The filler metal called speller is a non-ferrous metal or alloy. Copper and copper alloys, silver
and silver alloys, and aluminum alloys are the most commonly used filler metals.
The flow of molten filler material into the gap between the two workpieces is driven by the
capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong joint.
The base metals are not fused in the process.

Figure 7.20 Brazing Process

7.3.2 FLUX USED IN BRAZING
Flux performs its usual function as in soldering, i.e., it melts during the preheating stage and
spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from oxidation. It also cleans
the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
The flux used in brazing is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. One method of
applying the flux in powdered form is to dip the heated end of the filler rod into the container
of the powdered flux, and allowing the flux to stick to the filler rod. Another method is to
heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered flux over the joint, allowing the flux to
partly melt and stick to the base metal. Sometimes, it is desirable to mix powdered flux with
clean water (distilled water) to form a paste. Flux in either the paste or liquid form can be
applied with a brush to the joint. Better results occur when the filler metal is also given a
coat. The most common type of flux used is borax, or a mixture of borax with other
chemicals. Some of the commercial fluxes contain small amounts of phosphorous and
halogen salts of iodine, bromine, fluorine, chlorine, or astatine. When a prepared flux is not
available, a mixture of 12 parts of borax and 1-part boric acid may be used.

Torch brazing
Torch brazing is a brazing process in which the two metals are joined by the heat obtained
with a gas flame, and by using a non-ferrous filler metal having a melting temperature of
above 450°C, but below the melting temperature of the base metal.
In operation, the surfaces to be joined are cleaned thoroughly in order to remove dirt, grease
and other oxides. After cleaning, flux is applied at the joint. The base metals are broadly
heated by an oxy-acetylene welding torch. The filler metal is then placed at the joint and is
heated with a carburizing flame. The filler metal melts and flows through the joint by
capillary action. The workpiece is allowed to cool for some time. The joint is cleaned to
remove flux residues in order to prevent corrosion.
 Figure 7.21 Torch Brazing

Advantages
• Much heat is not involved in the process. Hence, low thermal distortions and residual
stresses in the joints.
• Easily automated process.
• Dissimilar parts can be joined.
Disadvantages
• Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise which may cause corrosion.
• Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
Applications
1. Automotive (Ex: joining tubes and pipes)
2. Electrical equipment (Ex: joining wires and cables)
3. Cutting tools (Ex: brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks)
4. Jewelry industry
5. Chemical process industry
6. Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and tubes by brazing
7. Repair and maintenance work

Review Questions

1. What is the difference between Soldering, Brazing And Welding?

2. What does a brazed joint provide? How does brazing work?
3. Illustrate torch brazing process.
 8. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Additive manufacturing or direct digital manufacturing, is a process for making a physical
object from a three-dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive thin
layers of a material. The successive layering of materials constitutes the technique of additive
manufacturing. Thus, the term direct digital manufacturing stems from the process of going
from a digital blueprint of a product to a finished physical product. Manufacturers can use 3D
printing to make prototypes of products before going for full production.
Additive Manufacturing (rapid prototyping, 3D printing) can be defined as the layer-by-layer
fabrication of three-dimensional physical models directly from a computer – aided design
(CAD) data.

Figure 8.1 Steps in Additive manufacturing

The evolution of ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING (rapid prototyping, 3d printing, free form

fabrication) has changed the face of direct, digital technologies for the rapid production of
models, prototypes, patterns, and fit & functional parts, since its introduction, AM technology
has changed design, engineering, and manufacturing processes within the aerospace,
automotive, electrical & electronics, consumer industries, biomedical and dental devices &
implants. Due to wide applications, rapid prototyping technology has become a revolutionary
field in manufacturing.
8.2 STEPS IN ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
1. The first step is to create a 3D model of the object to be printed. This model can be
designed with computer-aided design (CAD) software or through reverse engineering
techniques by for example using an object laser scanner.
2. The CAD file is then converted to a standard additive manufacturing file format -
usually an STL file. This step is regarded as the simplest. Conversion to a STL file
will tessellate shapes and the time needed to do this depends on PC power and model
complexity. The file is then digitally sliced into layers.
3. The third stage requires the transfer of the STL file and setting up of the machine. In
order to print economically i.e. maximise cost savings and reduce material waste, the
positioning and sizing of the object on the build platform should be checked – usually
multiple parts are printed in one go.
4. In the fourth step, the machine which is only controlled by a computer builds the
model layer by layer. The layer thickness dictates the final quality and depends on the
 machine and process. For Fused Deposition Modelling a layer thickness of 0.254 mm
is typical, for Stereolithography printing can result in a quality of 0.05 – 0.1 mm . The
size of a model depends on the machine size.
5. After building the part and potentially applying cooling and curing periods, the model
can be removed from the machine. Additional post processing can occur such as
cleaning, polishing, painting and finishing of the surface to the desired standard. This
may involve the use of other machines and tools.

8.2.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

Advantages:
1) AM can print complex 3D geometries with internal features without any tooling
2) Reduced waste compared to machining
3) Part can be printed directly from the 3D model without the need for a drawing
4) Prototypes can be made quicker, allowing designers to check different iterations
resulting in a quicker design cycle phase
5) Production tooling can be printed
6) Different materials can be mixed during the printing process to create a unique alloy
7) Different sections of the part can be different variants of the same alloy

Disadvantages:
1) Because the technology is still in its infancy, the build process is slow and costly
2) High production costs because of the equipment cost
3) Various post-processing required depending on the type of additive manufacturing
used
4) Small build volume compared to other manufacturing part size such as sand casting
5) Poor mechanical properties hence need post-processing
6) Poor surface finish and texture compared manufacturing processes like CNC and
investment casting.
7) The strength of the parts is comparably weaker compared to manufacturing processes
such as Die casting, Investment casting and CNC machining

8.2.2 CLASSIFICAION OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

There are numerous ways to classify additive manufacturing technologies.
• According to baseline technology, like whether the process uses lasers, printer
technology, extrusion technology, etc.
• According to processes and the type of raw material input. The problem with these
classification methods is that some processes get grouped together in what seems to
be odd combinations (like selective laser sintering (SLS) being grouped together with
3d printing) or that some processes that may appear to produce similar results end up
being separated (like stereolithographic and material jetting with photopolymers). It is
probably inappropriate, therefore, to use a single classification approach.
 Figure 8.2 Classification of Additive manufacturing Process

8.3 STEREO LITHOGRAPHY (SLA OR SL) SYSTEMS

Stereo Lithography (SL) is the first process ever developed in rapid prototyping field with the
meaning of 3-dimensional printing. It is a liquid-based process that consists of the curing or
solidification of a photosensitive polymer when an ultraviolet laser makes contact with the
resin. The process begins with construction of a model using CAD software. The model is
then translated to a STL file in which the pieces are cut into “slices,” with each slice
containing the information required for each layer. The thickness of each layer as well as its
resolution depend on the equipment used.
8.3.1Working Process of Stereo Lithography:
SLAs have four main parts a tank that can be filled with liquid plastic (photopolymer), a
perforated platform that is lowered into the tank, an ultraviolet (UV) laser and a computer
controlling the platform and the laser, as shown in figure 8.4.
In the initial step of the SLA process, a thin layer of photopolymer (usually between 0.05-
0.15 mm) is exposed above the perforated platform. The UV laser hits the perforated
platform, “painting” the pattern of the object being printed. The UV-curable liquid hardens
instantly when the UV laser touches it, forming the first layer of the 3D-printed object. Once
the initial layer of the object has hardened, the platform is lowered, exposing a new surface
layer of liquid polymer. The laser again traces a cross section of the object being printed,
which instantly bonds to the hardened section beneath it. This process is repeated again and
again until the entire object has been formed and is fully submerged in the tank. The platform
is then raised to expose a three-dimensional object. After it is rinsed with a liquid solvent to
free it of excess resin, the object is baked in an ultraviolet oven to further cure the plastic.
Objects made using stereo lithography generally have smooth surfaces, but the quality of an
object depends on the quality of the SLA machine used to print it. The amount of time it
takes to create an object with stereo lithography also depends on the size of the machine used
to print it. Small objects are usually produced with smaller machines and typically take
between six twelve hours to print. Larger objects, which can be several meters in three
dimensions, take days.

Figure 8.3 Stereo Lithography Process

Fig 8.4 Stereo Lithography Apparatus

Advantages
1) The SLA can be used continuously and unattended round the clock.
2) The computerized process serves as a good user support.
3) The different SLA machines have built volumes ranging from small to large to suit
the needs of different users.
4) The SLA has good accuracy and can thus be used for many application areas.
5) The SLA can obtain one of the best surface finishes amongst RP technologies.
Disadvantages
1) Structures that have overhangs and undercuts must have supports that are designed
and fabricated together with the main structure.
2) Post-processing includes removal of supports and other unwanted materials, which is
tedious, time-consuming and can damage the model.
3) Post-curing may be needed to cure the object completely and ensure the integrity of
the structure.

8.3.2 Applications of SLA:

The SLA technology provides manufacturers with cost justifiable methods for reducing time
to market, lowering product development costs, gaining greater control of their design
process and improving product design.
The range of applications includes:
1) Models for conceptualization, packaging and presentation.
2) Prototypes for design, analysis, verification and functional testing.
3) Parts for prototype tooling and low volume production tooling.
4) Patterns for investment casting, sand casting and moulding.
5) Tools for fixture and tooling design, and production tooling.

8.4 FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM)

Like Selective Laser Sintering, FDM uses thermoplastics to print parts. The difference
between these two is that FDM uses filaments, whereas SLS uses powders. Stereolithography
differs from both as it uses thermosets.
Step 1: A geometric model of a conceptual design is created on CAD software which uses
IGES or STL formatted files. It can then be imported into the workstation where it is
processed through.
The Quick Slice and Support Work propriety software before loading to FDM systems. The
CAD file is sliced into horizontal layers after the part is oriented for the optimum build
position, and any necessary support structures are automatically detected and generated. The
slice thickness can be set manually to anywhere between 0.172 to 0.356 mm (0.005 to 0.014
in) depending on the needs of the models.
Step 2: The nozzle is heated to melt the plastic filament and is mounted to a mechanical stage
which can be moved in both horizontal directions. As the nozzle is moved over the table in
the required geometry, it deposits a thin bead of extruded plastic to form each layer and
create a two-dimensional cross section of the model. The plastic hardens immediately after
being squirted from the nozzle and bonds to the layer below. The platform then descends
where the next layer is extruded upon the previous. This continues until the model is
completed. The entire system is contained within a chamber which is held at a temperature
just below the melting point of the plastic.
 Figure 8.5 Fused Deposition Modeling

Step 3: Once all the layers are drawn and the model is complete, the model is then removed
from the platform, and the support structures are removed from the part.
Parameters which affect performance and functionalities of the system are material column
strength, material flexural modulus, material viscosity, positioning accuracy, road widths,
deposition speed, volumetric flow rate, tip diameter, envelope temperature, and part
geometry.

Materials
The materials that have been used for this additive manufacturing technique include
polycarbonate (PC), Polyamide ((PA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), PC–ABS
blends, medical-grade polycarbonate, wax, metals, and even ceramics.

Advantages
1) FDM process is able to fabricate prototypes with materials that are similar to that of
the actual moulded product. This is especially useful in developing products that
require quick prototypes for functional testing.
2) The FDM process build parts directly by extruding semi-liquid melt onto the model.
Thus only those materials needed to build the part and its support are needed, and
material wastages are kept to a minimum. There is also little need for cleaning up the
model after it has been built.
3) This method is very convenient for users to get to their prototypes very quickly and
there is very little or no post-processing necessary.
4) Build materials, supplied in spool form (or cartridge form in the case of the
Dimension or Prodigy Plus), are easy to handle and can be changed readily when the
materials.
 Disadvantages
1) Parts built with the FDM process usually have restricted accuracy due to the shape of
the material used, i.e., the filament form. Typically, the filament used has a diameter
of 1.27 mm and this tends to set a limit on how accurately the part can be built.
2) The building process is slow, as the whole cross-sectional area needs to be filled with
building materials. Building speed is restricted by the extrusion rate or the flow rate of
the build material from the extrusion head.
3) As the FDM process extrudes the build material from its extrusion head and cools
them rapidly on deposition, stresses induced by such rapid cooling invariable are
introduced into the model. This leads to shrinkages and distortions of the models.
8.4.1 Applications
1) Models for conceptualization and presentation: Models can be marked, sanded, painted
and drilled and thus can be finished to be almost like the actual product.
2) Prototypes for design, analysis and functional testing: The system can produce a fully
functional prototype in ABS. The resulting ABS parts have 85% of the strength of the
actual moulded part. Thus, actual testing can be carried out, especially with consumer
products.
3) Patterns and masters for tooling: Models can be used as patterns for investment
casting, sand casting and molding.

8.5 MATERIAL JETTING

Material jetting creates objects in a similar method to a two-dimensional ink jet printer.
Material is jetted onto a build platform using either a continuous or Drop on Demand (DOD)
approach.
Material is jetted onto the build surface or platform, where it solidifies and the model is built
layer by layer. Material is deposited from a nozzle which moves horizontally across the build
platform. Machines vary in complexity and in their methods of controlling the deposition of
material. The material layers are then cured or hardened using ultraviolet (UV) light.
As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to use is limited.
Polymers and waxes are suitable and commonly used materials, due to their viscous nature
and ability to form drops.

Material Jetting Process

1. The print head is positioned above build platform.

2. Droplets of material are deposited from the print head onto surface where required,
using either thermal or piezoelectric method.
3. Droplets of material solidify and make up the first layer.
4. Further layers are built up as before on top of the previous.
5. Layers are allowed to cool and harden or are cured by UV light. Post processing
includes removal of support material.
 Figure 8.6 Material Jetting Process

Advantages:
1) Minimum waste of material because of high accuracy of deposition of droplets
2) It is a low cost, high speed, scalability, ease of building parts in multiple materials,
and the capability of printing colors.
3) Printing machines are much lower in cost than other AM machines, particularly the
ones that use lasers.
4) In general, printing machines can be assembled from standard components (drives,
stages, print heads), while other machines have many more machine-specific
components.

Disadvantages:
1) Support material is often required
2) The choice of materials to date is limited.
3) Part accuracy, particularly for large parts, is generally not as good as with some other
processes, notably vat photo polymerization and material extrusion.

8.6 BINDER JETTING

The binder jetting process uses two materials; a powder-based material and a binder. The
binder acts as an adhesive between powder layers. The binder is usually in liquid form and
the build material in powder form. A print head moves horizontally along the x and y axes of
the machine and deposits alternating layers of the build material and the binding material.
After each layer, the object being printed is lowered on its build platform.
Due to the method of binding, the material characteristics are not always suitable for
structural parts and despite the relative speed of printing, additional post processing (see
below) can add significant time to the overall process.
As with other powder-based manufacturing methods, the object being printed is self-
supported within the powder bed and is removed from the unbound powder once completed.
The technology is often referred to as 3DP technology and is copyrighted under this name.

Figure 8.7 Binder Jetting Process

Binder Jetting Process
1. Powder material is spread over the build platform using a roller.
2. The print head deposits the binder adhesive on top of the powder where required.
3. The build platform is lowered by the model’s layer thickness.
4. Another layer of powder is spread over the previous layer. The object is formed where
the powder is bound to the liquid.
5. Unbound powder remains in position surrounding the object.
6. The process is repeated until the entire object has been made.

Advantages of Binder Jetting

1) Binder Jetting produces metal parts and full-color prototypes at a fraction of the
cost compared to DMLS/SLM and Material Jetting respectively.
2) Binder Jetting can manufacture very large parts and complex metal geometries, as
it is not limited by any thermal effects (e.g. warping).
3) The manufacturing capabilities of Binder Jetting are excellent for low to
medium batch production.

Disadvantages of Binder Jetting

1) Metal Binder Jetting parts have lower mechanical properties than DMSL/SLM
parts, due to their higher porosity.
2) Only rough and simple geometry components can be printed with Binder Jetting, as
the parts are very brittle in their green state and may fracture during post processing.
 3) Compared to other 3D printing process, Binder Jetting offers a limited material
selection.

Review Questions
1. What is metal additive manufacturing? List the applications for Additive
Manufacturing.
2. Is 3D printing only good for plastics? Justify.
3. What is a 3D printer? How does 3D Printing Work?
4. Classify the AM process? What are the most common 3D printing file formats?
5. What are the merits of product development? Mention the importance of AM in
tooling industry.
6. What is a 3d printing model? Can chocolate be 3d printed? Provide appropriate
reasons for it.
7. List the Most Advanced components that are manufactured using 3d Printing.
Give an example of a biggest component that was 3D printed till date.
8. Define the fundamental principle of stereo lithography process.
9. What are the applications of FDM models. Give an example
10. Describe the generic steps in building a component in an Additive
Manufacturing (AM) process.
 9. AUTOMATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Today’s highly increasing competitiveness over the industry demands high quality and most
consistent products with a competitive price. To address this challenge number of industries
considering various new product designs and integrated manufacturing techniques in parallel
with the use of automated devices.
One of the remarkable and influential moves for getting the solutions of above-mentioned
challenge is the industrial automation. Industrial automation facilitates to increase the
product quality, reliability and production rate while reducing production and design cost by
adopting new, innovative and integrated technologies and services
Automation takes a step further mechanization that uses a particular machinery mechanism
aided human operators for performing a task. Mechanization is the manual operation of a task
using powered machinery that depends on human decision making.
On the other hand, automation replaces the human involvement with the use of logical
programming commands and powerful machineries.
In a brief, industrial automation can be defined as the use of set technologies and automatic
control devices that results the automatic operation and control of industrial processes
without significant human intervention and achieving superior performance than manual
control. These automation devices include PLCs, PCs, PACs, etc. and technologies include
various industrial communication systems.

9.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION

Automation is technology concerned with the application of Mechanical, electronic &
computer-based systems to operate and control production in order to improves productions.

Figure 9.1 A typical Automated production system.

Types of Automation: Automated production systems are classified into three basic types:

1 Fixed automation
2 Programmable automation
3 Flexible automation

Figure 9.2 Types of Automation

1. Fixed automation
Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is
fixed by the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually simple. It is
the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment that
makes the system complex.

The typical features of fixed automation are:

• High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
• High production rates
• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes
The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products with very high demand
rates and volumes. The high initial cost of the equipment can be spread over a very large
number of units, thus making the unit cost attractive compared to alternative methods of
production.
2. Programmable automation
In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the capability to
change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations. The
operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that the
system can read and interpret them. New programs can be prepared and entered into the
equipment lo produce new products. Some of the features that characterize programmable
automation include:
 ▪ High investment in general-purpose equipment.
▪ Low production rates relative to fixed automation
▪ Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration
▪ Most suitable for batch production
Automated production systems that are programmable are used in low and medium- volume
production. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch
of a different product, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions
that correspond to the new product. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed
over: Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and the required
machine settings must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time. Consequently, the
typical cycle for a given product includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming
takes place, followed by a period in which the batch is produced.
3. Flexible automation
Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The concept of flexible
automation has developed only over the last 15 to 20 years, and the principles are still
evolving. A flexible automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of
products (or parts) with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the next.
There is no production time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the physical
setup (tooling, fixtures and machine settings). Consequently, the system can produce various
combinations and schedules of products, instead of requiring that they be made in separate
batches.
The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
▪ High investment for a custom-engineered system
▪ Continuous production of variable mixtures of products
▪ Medium production rates
▪ Flexibility to deal with product design variations
The essential features that distinguish flexible automation from programmable automation are
(1) The capacity to change part programs with no lost production time, and
(2) The capability to change over the physical setup, again with no lost production time.
These features allow the automated production system to continue production without the
downtime between batches that is characteristic of programmable automation. Changing the
part programs is generally accomplished by preparing the programs off-line on a computer
system and electronically transmitting the programs to the automated production system.
Therefore, the time required to do the programming for the next job does not interrupt
production on the current job. Advances in computer systems technology are largely
responsible for this programming capability in flexible automation. Changing the physical
setup between parts is accomplished by making the changeover off-line and then moving it
into place simultaneously as the next part comes into position for processing. The use of
pallet fixtures that hold the parts and transfer into position at the workplace is one way of
implementing this approach. For these approaches to be successful, the variety of parts that
can be made on a flexible automated production system is usually more limited than a system
controlled by programmable automation.
The relative positions of the three types of automation for different production volumes and
product varieties are depicted in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Automation Types against product variety v/s production volume.

9.3 REASONS FOR AUTOMATION

The important reasons for automation include the following:
1. Increased productivity: Automation of manufacturing operations holds the
promise of increasing the productivity of labor. This means greater output per hour
of labor input. Higher production rates (output per hour) are achieved with
automation than with the corresponding manual operations.
2. High cost of labor: The trend in the industrialized societies of the world has been
toward ever-increasing labor costs. As a result, higher investment in automated
equipment has become economically justifiable to replace manual operations. The
high cost of labor is forcing business leaders to substitute machines for human
labor. Because machines can produce at higher rates of output, the use of
automation results in a lower cost per unit of product.
3. Labor shortages: In many advanced nations there has been a general shortage of
labor. Labor shortages also stimulate the development of automation as a
substitute for labor.
4. Trend of labor toward the service sector: This trend has been especially prevalent
in the advanced countries. First around 1986, the proportion of the work force
employed in manufacturing stands at about 20%. In 1947, this percentage was
30%. By the year 2000, some estimates put the figure as low as 2%, certainly,
automation of production jobs has caused some of this shift. The growth of
government employment at the federal, state, and local levels has consumed a
 certain share of the labor market which might otherwise have gone into
manufacturing. Also, there has been a tendency for people to view factory work as
tedious, demeaning, and dirty. This view has caused them to seek employment in
the service sector of the economy.
5. Safe: By automating the operation and transferring the operator from an active
participation to a supervisory role, work is made safer. The safety and physical
well-being of the worker has become a national objective with the enactment of
the Occupational. Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA). It has also provided an
impetus for automation.
6. High cost of raw materials: The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing
results in the need for greater efficiency in using these materials. The reduction of
scrap is one of the benefits of automation.
7. Improved product quality: Automated operations not only produce parts at faster
rates than do their manual counterparts, but they produce parts with greater
consistency and conformity to quality specifications.
8. Reduced manufacturing lead time: For reasons that we shall examine in sub
sequent chapters, automation allows the manufacturer to reduce the time between
customer order and product delivery. This gives the manufacturer a competitive
advantage in promoting good customer service.
9. Reduction of in-process inventory: Holding large inventories of work-in-process
represents a significant cost to the manufacturer because it ties up capital. In-
process inventory is of no value. It serves none of the purposes of raw materials
stock or finished product inventory. Accordingly, it is to the manufacturer's
advantage to reduce work-in- progress to a minimum. Automation tends to
accomplish this goal by reducing the time a work part spends in the factory.
10. High cost of not automating: A significant competitive advantage is gained by
automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot easily be demonstrated
on a company's project authorization form. The benefits of automation often show
up in intangible and unexpected ways, such as improved quality, higher sales,
better labor relations, and better company image. Companies that do not automate
are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with their customers,
their employees, and the general public.

Review Questions
1. State the main objectives of a modern industry (at least five) and explain the role of
automation in helping achieve them.
2. What are the reasons for automation?
3. What are the principles of automation?
4. Explain ten Strategies of Automation?
5. What is industrial automation?
6. Explain the following types of Automation: (i) Programmable Automation (ii) Fixed
Automation
7. Differentiate between fixed and flexible automation
8. Differentiate fixed and programmable automation.
9. Define `Fixed Automation’ and `Flexible Automation’. Enumerate the differences
between them.