SINGULARITIES, ZEROS & POLES

SINGULARITIES
A point 𝒛𝟎 is called a singular point or singularity
of a function if function fails to be analytic at
some point in every neighbourhood of 𝒛𝟎 .

If a function is nowhere analytic then we say it

has no singular point. Basically, the singular point
makes the function not to be analytic or
undefined.
 Types of singularity
1. Isolated singularity (pole): Point 𝑧0 is said to
be isolated if there is at least one deleted
neighbourhood throughout which the
function is analytic, i.e. |𝒛 − 𝑧0 | < 𝜺
We have other forms of isolated singularity
such as removable, pole and essential
singularity.
2. Non-isolated singularity: Point 𝑧0 is said to
be non-isolated if every deleted neighbourhood
of 𝑧0 contains singular point.

(a) Removable singularity

1. Point 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is called removable isolated

singular point if the principal part of 𝑓 𝑧
does not exist.
2. If 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒃𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝒃𝟏 = ⋯ = 𝟎

3. lim 𝒇(𝒛) exists and finite

𝒛→𝑧0

4. All powers of 𝒛 are non-negative during the

expansion of 𝒇(𝒛)

5. By redefining the function, we can remove

the singularity.
Example: Determine the type of singularity of

at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒛
𝐟 𝒛 =
𝒛
 (b) Pole
1. If there are finite number of terms in the
principal part of 𝒇(𝒛) then 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is a pole.
2. If 𝒃𝒎 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝒃𝒎+𝟏 = 𝒃𝒎+𝟐 = 𝒃𝒎+𝟑 = ⋯ = 𝟎
then 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is called a pole of order 𝒎
3. If 𝒎 = 𝟏 then it is called simple pole.
4. lim 𝒇(𝒛) exists and finite.
𝒛→𝑧0
Picard’s Theorem: If is analytic and has an isolated essential
singularity at a point it takes on every value, with at most one
exceptional value, in an arbitrarily small –neighborhood of z 0.
Example: Determine the type of singularity of
𝒆𝒛
at 𝐟(𝒛) = at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒛𝟑
 (c) Essential isolated singularity
1. If there are infinite number of terms in the
principal part of 𝒇(𝒛) then 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is an
essential isolated singularity

2. The limit point of zeros is essential isolated

singularity

3. lim 𝒇(𝒛) does not exist

𝒛→𝑧0
Example: Determine the type of singularity

of at 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒆 at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝟏Τ
𝒛
Casorati–Weierstrass theorem states that in
each deleted neighborhood of an essential
singular point, a function assumes values
arbitrarily close to any given number.
 What kind of singularity exists in the following
functions 𝒛𝟐
6. at 𝒛 = ±𝒊
1. at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒛 (𝒛𝟐 +𝟏)(𝒛+𝟐)𝟒
𝒛
7. at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒛
2. at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒛 𝟐
𝒛
at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒛)
3. 𝒆 at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝟏Τ
𝒛 8. 𝟑
𝒛
𝟏−𝒆𝟐𝒛
4.
𝒛𝟐 −𝟏
at 𝒛 = 𝟏 9. 𝟑 at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒛−𝟏 𝒛

10. at 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝟏
5. at 𝒛 = 𝒂
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒛−𝒂)
𝒔𝒊𝒏
(𝒛−𝒂)𝟐 𝟏−𝒛
 ZEROS
Zeros exist when point 𝒛 of an analytic
function assumes zero such that 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝟎.
An analytic function has zero of order 𝒏 at
point 𝒛𝟎 if and only if it derivatives are zeros.
𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝒇′ 𝒛𝟎 = 𝒇𝒏−𝟏 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎 and 𝒇𝒏 𝒛𝟎 ≠ 𝟎.

If 𝒇 𝒛 is rational then the values at which the

numerator will be zero are referred to as zeros.
Example: Determine the order of zero of
𝒇 𝒛 = (𝒛 − 𝟑)𝟐 .
At 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟑. Then
′
𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎
But 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟐 ≠ 𝟎
′′

The zero is the order of the derivative at

which 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 ≠ 𝟎
′′

Therefore, 𝒇 𝒛 has zero of order 2

 Order of zeros and poles

𝒛 = −𝟑, zero of order 1

𝒛+𝟑
𝟏. 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒛 − 𝟏 𝟐 (𝒛 + 𝟐)

𝒛 = 𝟏, pole of order 2
𝒛 = −𝟐, simple pole
 Zero and Pole cancellation
Given 𝒇 𝒛 = Let 𝒛𝟎 be a pole of order j for
𝑷(𝒛)
.
𝑸(𝒛)

𝒇 𝒛 and also let 𝒛𝟎 be a zero of order k for 𝒇 𝒛 .

Then, 𝑷(𝒛𝟎 ) = 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 𝒌 . 𝒈(𝒛) and 𝑸(𝒛𝟎 ) =
𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 . 𝒉(𝒛) where 𝒈(𝒛) ≠ 𝟎 and h(𝒛) ≠ 𝟎
𝒋

𝒌 .𝒈(𝒛)
Thus, 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝑷(𝒛) 𝒛−𝒛𝟎
= 𝒋 .𝒉(𝒛)
𝑸(𝒛) 𝒛−𝒛𝟎

i) If 𝒋 > 𝒌, then 𝒇 𝒛 has a pole of order 𝒋 − 𝒌

ii) If 𝒋 ≤ 𝒌, then 𝒇 𝒛 has a removable singularity
 𝒛 = 𝟏, zero of order 1
, zero of order 1
−𝟑
𝒛=
𝟐

𝟐
(𝟐𝒛 + 𝟑) 𝒛 − 𝟏
𝟏. 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒛 − 𝟏 (𝒛 − 𝟑)

𝒛 = 𝟏, removable singularity
𝒛 = 𝟑, simple pole
 𝒛 = −𝟐, zero of order 1
𝒛 = 𝟏, zero of order 1

(𝒛 − 𝟏) 𝒛 + 𝟐
𝟐. 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒛 − 𝟏 𝒛 + 𝟑 𝟐 (𝒛 + 𝟏)

𝒛 = 𝟏 , removable 𝒛 = −𝟏, pole of order 1

singularity 𝒛 = −𝟑, pole of order 2

Determine the zeros and the zero order of
the following functions
1. 𝒇 𝒛 = (𝒛 − 𝟏)
𝟐
2. 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒛+𝟒
𝝅
3. 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒛 )
𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒛)
4. 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒛𝟐
𝝅
5. 𝒇 𝒛 = (𝒛 − 𝟏)𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒛 )
𝟐
RESIDUES
 RESIDUE
The residue of a function 𝒇(𝒛) at an isolated
singularity 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 , denoted 𝑹𝒆𝒔(𝒛𝟎 ) is the
coefficient (𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )−𝟏 [coefficient 𝒃𝟏 ] in the
Laurent series around 𝒛𝟎 . 𝟏
𝒃𝟏 = න 𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛
𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝒄
If 𝒇(𝒛) is analytic at 𝒛𝟎 , then 𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝒇 𝒛 ; 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎
If 𝒇(𝒛) has a removable singularity at 𝒛𝟎 , then
𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝒇 𝒛 ; 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎 eg. 𝒇 𝒛 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒛
𝒛
 𝒆𝒊𝒂𝒛
Example: Find the residue of at 𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒛𝟒

(𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟐 (𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟑 +(𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟒

𝒆𝒊𝒂𝒛 𝟏+ 𝒊𝒂𝒛 +
𝟐!
+
𝟑! 𝟒!
+⋯
𝐟 𝐳 = =
𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟒

𝟏 𝒊𝒂𝒛 (𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟐 (𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟑 + (𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟒

= + + + +⋯
𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟒 𝟐!𝒛𝟒 𝟑!𝒛𝟒 𝟒!𝒛𝟒

−𝟏 (𝒊𝒂𝒛)𝟑
𝒃𝟏 (𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 ) =
𝟑!𝒛𝟒
𝒊𝟑 𝒂𝟑
Thus, 𝒃𝟏 = is the residue
𝟔
 𝒛𝟐
Example: Find the residue of at its poles
𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟐
𝐟 𝐳 = = such that 𝒛 = 𝒂𝒊 and
𝒛𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 (𝒛−𝒂𝒊)(𝒛+𝒂𝒊)

𝒛 = −𝒂𝒊 are simple poles

𝒛𝟐 (𝒂𝒊)𝟐 𝒂𝒊
𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝐟 𝒂𝒊 = lim (𝒛 − 𝒂𝒊) = =
𝒛→𝒂𝒊 (𝒛−𝒂𝒊)(𝒛+𝒂𝒊) 𝟐𝒂𝒊 𝟐

𝒛𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 −𝒂𝒊
𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝐟 −𝒂𝒊 = lim (𝒛 + 𝒂𝒊) = =
𝒛→−𝒂𝒊 (𝒛−𝒂𝒊)(𝒛+𝒂𝒊) −𝟐𝒂𝒊 𝟐
 Residue at ∞
We can find the residue of 𝐟 𝐳 at ∞ by
1. 𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝐟 ∞ = lim −𝒛𝒇 𝒛 .
𝒛→∞
2. 𝐑𝐞𝐬 𝐟 ∞ =negative of the coefficient of in
𝟏
𝒛

the expansion of 𝐟 𝐳 .
𝒛𝟑
Example: Find the residue of 𝐟 𝐳 = at 𝐳 = ∞
𝒛𝟐 −𝟏
𝒛𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏
𝐟 𝐳 = 𝟏 = 𝒛 (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
𝟐
𝒛 (𝟏− 𝟐 ) 𝒛
𝒛
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒛 (𝟏 − 𝟐 ) = 𝒛 𝟏+ + + + ⋯ = −𝟏
𝒛 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟔
 Quiz

𝒛𝟐 −𝟐𝒛
Determine the residue of at all poles
(𝒛𝟐 +𝟒)(𝒛+𝟏)𝟐

Hint: Double pole or pole of order 2 at 𝒛 = −𝟏 Ans= ,

−𝟏𝟒
𝟐𝟓

Simple pole at 𝒛 = 𝟐𝒊 Ans=

𝟕+𝒊
𝟐𝟓

Simple pole at 𝒛 = −𝟐𝒊 Ans=

𝟕−𝒊
𝟐𝟓
 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
If 𝒇 𝒛 is analytic within and on a closed
contour 𝑪, except at a finite number of poles
inside 𝑪, then
‫ 𝒊𝝅𝟐 = 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝒇 𝒄׬‬σ 𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎
Where σ 𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 is the
sum of residues at all its
poles within 𝑪.
 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

‫ 𝒊𝝅𝟐 = 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝒇 𝒄׬‬σ 𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎

If Residue 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is a simple pole, then

𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = lim 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 𝒇(𝒛)
𝒛→𝒛𝟎

If Residue 𝒛 = 𝒛𝟎 is a pole of order 𝒏, then

𝟏 𝒅𝒏−𝟏 𝒏
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒏−𝟏
𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 𝒇(𝒛)
𝒏 − 𝟏 ! 𝒛→𝒛𝟎 𝒅𝒛
 Example: Using Cauchy’s Residue theorem,
evaluate
𝒛𝟐
‫𝒄׬‬ 𝟐 𝒅𝒛; along 𝒛 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝒛−𝟏 (𝒛−𝟐)

𝒛 = 𝟏 has pole of order 2 and 𝒛 = 𝟐 is a simple pole

For simple pole 𝐳 = 𝟐, we have

𝒛𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = lim 𝒛 − 𝟐
𝒛→𝟐 𝒛 − 𝟏 𝟐 (𝒛 − 𝟐)
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟒
For a pole of order 2 when 𝐳 = 𝟏, we have
𝟏 𝒅𝟐−𝟏 𝟐
𝒛𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝟏 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒛−𝟏
𝟐 − 𝟏 ! 𝒛→𝟏 𝒅𝒛𝟐−𝟏 𝒛 − 𝟏 𝟐 (𝒛 − 𝟐)

𝒅 𝒛𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝟏 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝒛→𝟏 𝒅𝒛 (𝒛 − 𝟐)

𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 𝟏 = −𝟑

Therefore, ‫ 𝟒(𝒊𝝅𝟐 = 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝒇 𝒄׬‬+ −𝟑 ) = 𝟐𝝅𝒊

Example: Using Cauchy’s Residue theorem,
𝒅𝒛; along 𝒛 − 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝒛𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒛
evaluate ‫𝒄׬‬ 𝝅 𝟐
𝒛−
𝟐

has pole of order 2 (double pole), i.e 𝒏 = 𝟐

𝝅
𝒛=
𝟐
𝝅 𝟏 𝒅𝟐−𝟏 𝝅 𝟐 𝒛𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒛
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒛 −
𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟏 ! 𝒛→𝝅 𝒅𝒛 𝟐−𝟏 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
𝟐 𝒛−
𝝅 𝒅
𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝝅
𝒛𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒛
𝟐 𝒛→ 𝒅𝒛
𝟐
𝝅 𝝅
𝑹𝒆𝒔 𝒇 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝝅
𝒛 −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒛 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒛 𝟏 =-
𝟐 𝒛→ 𝟐
𝟐
𝝅
‫(𝒊𝝅𝟐 = 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝒇 𝒄׬‬− ) = 𝝅𝟐 𝒊
𝟐
Quiz 1: Using Cauchy’s Residue theorem,
𝟏
evaluate ‫ ;𝒛𝒅 𝒆𝒛 𝒄׬‬c: 𝒛 = 𝟏
𝒛

𝒛 = 𝟎 has a simple pole

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒛𝒆𝒛 = 𝐳(𝟏 + + 𝟐
+ ⋯)
𝒛 𝟐! 𝒛
For a pole, the coefficient of is
𝟏 𝟏
𝒛 𝟐
𝟏
න 𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊 = 𝝅𝒊
𝟐
𝒄
COMPLEX INTEGRATION
 PATH
A path or curve is a continuous function 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ where
[𝒂, 𝒃] is a real interval.
So, for each 𝒂 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝒃, 𝜸(𝒕) is a point on the path. We say that
the path 𝜸 starts at 𝜸(𝒂) and ends at 𝜸(𝒃) such that 𝜸(𝒕𝟏 ) ≠
𝜸(𝒕𝟐 ) is a simple curve.
A simple closed path is a closed path that does not intersect or
touch.
Let 𝜸 ∶ 𝒂, 𝒃 → ℂ be a path. If 𝜸(𝒂) = 𝜸(𝒃) (i.e. if 𝜸 starts and
ends at the same point) then we say that 𝜸 is a closed path
or a closed loop.
A curve 𝜸 is continuously differentiable if 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ is
differentiable in [𝒂, 𝒃] (i.e. 𝜸’(𝒕) exists) and 𝜸’(𝒕) is
continuous in [a, b]. A continuously differentiable curve 𝜸
is smooth if 𝜸’(𝒕) ≠ 𝟎 for 𝒕 ∈ [𝒂, 𝒃]. A path 𝜸 is said to be
smooth curve if 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ is differentiable and 𝜸′ is
continuous.

A curve 𝜸 is piecewise continuous if it is a sum of finite

number of continuous curves. It is piecewise smooth if it
is a sum of finite number of smooth curves.
 Contour
A contour is a simple closed piecewise smooth curve.
contour integration is a method of evaluating certain
integrals along paths in the complex plane. A contour, or
piecewise smooth arc, is an arc consisting of a finite
number of smooth arcs joined end to end.
If 𝒛 = 𝒛(𝒕) is a contour, 𝒛(𝒕) is continuous,
whereas 𝒛’(𝒕) is piecewise continuous.
When only initial and final values of 𝒛(𝒕) are the same,
a contour is called a simple closed contour.
 A contour is a simple closed piecewise smooth curve.
A contour 𝜸 is a collection of paths 𝜸𝟏 , … , 𝜸𝒏 where each 𝜸𝒓 is a
smooth path and the end-point of 𝜸𝒓 coincides with the start
point of 𝜸𝒓+𝟏 , 𝟏 ≤ 𝒓 ≤ 𝒏 − 𝟏.
We write 𝜸 = 𝜸𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝜸𝒏

If the end-point of 𝜸𝒏 coincides with the start point of 𝜸𝟏 then

we call 𝜸 a closed contour.
Thus, the length of a contour 𝜸 = 𝜸𝟏 + 𝜸𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝜸𝒏 is defined to
be
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝜸) = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝜸𝟏 ) + · · · + 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝜸𝒏 ).
The function 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ is called a parametric
representation of the curve.
The curve 𝜸 is a Jordan arc or a simple arc if it is
one-to-one in [𝒂, 𝒃]. A closed curve 𝜸 is a Jordan
curve or a simple closed curve if it is one to-one in
[𝒂, 𝒃).
Jordan Curve Theorem: Every Jordan curve 𝜸 divides
the complex plane into three parts: the curve 𝜸 itself,
the interior denoted by 𝑰(𝜸) and the exterior denoted
by 𝑬(𝜸).
A simple closed curve 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ is positively oriented
if the interior 𝑰(𝜸) is on the left when the curve is
traced in the direction of the curve, otherwise it is
negatively oriented.
Example: Example. An important example of a
closed path is given by 𝒊𝒕
𝜸(𝒕) = 𝒆 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 +
𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕, 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟐𝝅.
This is the path that describes the
circle in C with centre 0 and radius
1 ( 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 + 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 = 𝟏 ), starting
and ending at the point 1, travelling
around the circle in an anticlockwise
direction.
LINE INTEGRAL IN A COMPLEX PLANE
 LINE INTEGRAL
An indefinite integral is a function whose derivative equals a
given analytic function in a region. By inverting known
differentiation formulas we may find many types of
indefinite integrals.
Complex definite integrals are called
(complex) line integrals. They are written
The integrand is integrated over a given curve C or a portion
of it, say an arc . This curve C in the complex plane s called
the path of integration. We may represent C by a parametric
representation
The limit of the sequence of complex numbers thus
obtained is called the line integral (or simply the integral) of f
(z) over the path of integration C with the orientation. This
line integral is denoted by

All paths of integration for complex line integrals are

assumed to be piecewise smooth, that is, they consist of
finitely many smooth curves joined end to end.
 Complex integration using the Path
Let 𝑪 be a piecewise smooth path, represented by 𝒛 = 𝒛(𝒕) ,
where 𝒂 ≦ 𝒕 ≦ 𝒃. Let 𝒇(𝒛) be a continuous function on 𝑪. Then

𝒃 𝒅𝒛
‫= 𝒛𝒅)𝒛(𝒇 𝑪׬‬ ‫𝒂׬‬ Ǘ
𝒇[𝒛(𝒕)]𝒛(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 𝒛Ǘ =
𝒅𝒕

Steps
(A) Represent the path 𝑪 in the form 𝒛(𝒕)(𝒂 ≦ 𝒕 ≦ 𝒃).
(B) Calculate the derivative 𝒛(𝒕)
Ǘ = 𝒅𝒛/𝒅𝒕.
(C) Substitute 𝒛(𝒕) for every 𝒛 in 𝒇(𝒛) (hence 𝒙(𝒕) for 𝒙 and 𝒚(𝒕) for 𝒚 ).
(D) Integrate 𝒇[𝒛(𝒕)]𝒛(𝒕)
Ǘ over 𝒕 from 𝒂 to 𝒃.
Contour integration
 Contour integration
Theorem: (Contour Integrals) If 𝒇 𝒛 is continuous
on a directed smooth curve 𝜸 and if 𝐳 = 𝜸 𝒕 , 𝒂 ≤ 𝒕 ≤
𝒃 is a parametrization of 𝜸 , then a contour
𝒃
‫= 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝒇 𝜸׬‬ ‫𝒇 𝒂׬‬ 𝜸 𝒕 𝜸′ (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
For 𝜸 ∶ [𝒂, 𝒃] → ℂ
We need to pay attention on the direction
(path) when integrating from one point (say 𝒛𝟎 )
to another point (say 𝒛𝟏 ) in complex plane.
parametrization of 𝜸

Straight line

Circle

Semi circle

Note: The 𝒛𝟎 represents the centre and 𝒓 is the radius;

𝒛𝟏 = 𝒂 and 𝒛𝟐 = 𝒃
METHODS OF CONTOUR INTEGRATION
Contour integration methods include:
1. Direct integration of a complex-valued function
along a curve in the complex plane (a contour);
2. Application of the Cauchy integral formula; and
3. Application of the residue theorem.
Example 1: Integrate 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝐑𝐞 𝒛 = 𝒙 from 0 to 𝟏 +
𝟐𝒊 (a) along 𝑪∗ (b) along 𝑪 consisting of 𝑪𝟏 and 𝑪𝟐 .

Solutions

𝑪∗ can be represented by 𝒛(𝒕) =

𝒕 + 𝟐𝒊𝒕(𝟎 ≦ 𝒕 ≦ 𝟏) . Hence 𝒛(𝒕)
Ǘ =
𝟏 + 𝟐𝒊 and 𝒇[𝒛(𝒕)] = 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒕 on
𝑪∗ . We now calculate
 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝐑𝐞 𝒛𝒅𝒛 = න 𝒕(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒊)𝒅𝒕 = (𝟏 + 𝟐𝒊) = + 𝒊.
𝑪∗ 𝟎 𝟐 𝟐

We now have
Ǘ
𝑪𝟏 : 𝒛(𝒕) = 𝒕, 𝒛(𝒕) = 𝟏, 𝒇(𝒛(𝒕)) = 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒕 (𝟎 ≦ 𝒕 ≦ 𝟏)
Ǘ
𝑪𝟐 : 𝒛(𝒕) = 𝟏 + 𝒊𝒕, 𝒛(𝒕) = 𝒊, 𝒇(𝒛(𝒕)) = 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝟏 (𝟎 ≦ 𝒕 ≦ 𝟐).

Using (6) we calculate

න 𝐑𝐞 𝒛𝒅𝒛 = න 𝐑𝐞 𝒛𝒅𝒛 + න 𝐑𝐞 𝒛𝒅𝒛
𝑪 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
= න 𝒕𝒅𝒕 + න 𝟏 ⋅ 𝒊𝒅𝒕
𝟎 𝟎
𝟏
= + 𝟐𝒊
𝟐
Example 2: Consider the function 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝟏/𝒛, and let
the contour 𝑳 be the counterclockwise unit circle
about 0.
Solutions
We parametrized 𝒛 by 𝒛(𝒕) = 𝒆𝒊𝒕 with 𝒕
in [𝟎, 𝟐𝝅] using the complex exponential.
Substituting, we find:

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝟏 𝟏 𝒊𝒕 −𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒕
න 𝒅𝒛 =න 𝒊𝒕
𝒊𝒆 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒊 න 𝒆 𝒆 𝒅𝒕
𝟎 𝒛 𝟎 𝒆 𝟎
𝟐𝝅
= 𝒊න 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒊(𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎) = 𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝟎
Example 3: Let 𝜸 be the line from 5 to 2+3i. Find

1. ‫𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝜸׬‬ 2. ‫𝒛 𝜸׬‬ത 𝒅𝒛

Solutions

First consider the direction of

the points

Then, we have to parametrize 𝜸 such that 𝜸 𝒕 = 𝟓 +

𝒕 𝟐 + 𝟑𝒊 − 𝟓 = 𝟓 + 𝒕(−𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊) for 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏
 𝒃

න 𝒇 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = න 𝒇 𝜸 𝒕 𝜸′ (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝜸 𝒂
𝟏

න 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = න(𝟓 + 𝒕(−𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊))(−𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊)𝒅𝒕

𝜸 𝟎 𝟏

= 𝟓 −𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊 + න −𝟏𝟖𝒊𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = −𝟏𝟓 + 𝟔𝒊
𝟏 𝟎
Now,
න 𝒛ത 𝒅𝒛 = න(𝟓 + 𝒕(−𝟑 − 𝟑𝒊))(−𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊)𝒅𝒕
𝜸 𝟎 𝟏

= 𝟓 −𝟑 + 𝟑𝒊 + න 𝟏𝟖𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = −𝟔 + 𝟏𝟓𝒊
𝟎
Example 4: Let 𝜸 be the circle from 5 to 2+3i. Find
𝟏
𝟒

1. ‫𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝜸׬‬ 2. ‫𝒛 𝜸׬‬ത 𝒅𝒛

Solutions
First consider the direction of the
points along the circle of centre
2 and radius 3
Then, we have to parametrize 𝜸 using complex

exponential such that 𝜸 𝒕 = 𝟐 + 𝟑𝒆 for 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤

𝒊𝒕 𝝅
𝟐
 𝝅 𝝅
𝟐 𝟐
න 𝒛 𝒅𝒛 = න (𝟐 + 𝟑𝒆𝒊𝒕 )𝟑𝒊𝒆𝒊𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න(𝟔𝒊𝒆𝒊𝒕 + 𝟗𝒊𝒆𝟐𝒊𝒕 )𝒅𝒕
𝜸 𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟗
= [𝟔𝒆𝒊𝒕 + 𝒆𝟐𝒊𝒕 ]𝟎𝟐 = −𝟏𝟓 + 𝟔𝐢
𝟐
Now,
𝝅 𝝅
𝟐 𝟐
න 𝒛ത 𝒅𝒛 = න (𝟐 + 𝟑𝒆−𝒊𝒕 )𝟑𝒊𝒆𝒊𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න(𝟔𝒊𝒆𝒊𝒕 + 𝟗𝒊)𝒅𝒕
𝜸 𝟎 𝟎
𝝅
𝟗
= [𝟔𝒆 + 𝒊𝒕
𝟗𝒊𝒕]𝟎𝟐 = 𝟔𝐢 − 𝟔 + 𝝅𝒊
𝟐
As long as the integrand is analytic the shape of the
contour does not matter, see the solutions of
question 1 of both examples, otherwise it is not
analytic.

Line integral depends on the curves when

the integrand is not analytic
 Theorem: Cauchy Integral Formula: If 𝜸 is
simple, closed contour and 𝒇(𝒛) is analytic on
and inside 𝜸 ay point 𝒛𝟎 . Then

for 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, …
𝒇(𝒛) 𝟐𝝅𝒊 (𝒏)
‫𝒛( 𝜸ׯ‬−𝒛 )𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒛𝟎
𝟎 𝒏!

for 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, …
𝒇(𝒛) 𝟐𝝅𝒊
‫𝒛( 𝜸ׯ‬−𝒛 )𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒏) 𝒛𝟎
𝟎 (𝒏−𝟏)!
Example 3: Integrate the following using Cauchy
Integral Formula.

𝒆𝒊𝒕
1. ‫𝒛 𝟑= 𝒛ׯ‬+𝒊 𝒅𝒛

2.
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒛)
‫𝒛𝟑 𝟑= 𝒛ׯ‬−𝟏 𝒅𝒛

3.
𝒛+𝟐
‫𝒛( 𝟑= 𝒛ׯ‬−𝟐)(𝒛+𝟒)𝟐 𝒅𝒛

𝒆𝒊𝒕
4. ‫𝒛( 𝟑= 𝒛ׯ‬+𝒊)𝟐 𝒅𝒛
 𝒆𝒊𝒛 𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝒊𝒛
‫𝒛 𝟑= 𝒛 ׯ‬+𝒊 𝒅𝒛 = [𝒆 ]𝒛=−𝒊 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝒆𝒊(−𝒊) = 𝟐𝝅𝒊e
𝟎!

𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒛) 𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝟑
‫𝒛ׯ‬ =𝟑 𝟏 𝒅𝒛 = [𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅)] 𝟏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏( )
𝒛− 𝟑×𝟎! 𝒛= 𝟑 𝟑
𝟑 𝟑

𝒛+𝟐
(𝒛 + 𝟒)𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝒛 + 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒊 × 𝟒
ර 𝒅𝒛 = [ 𝟐
]𝒛=𝟐 =
(𝒛 − 𝟐) 𝟎! (𝒛 + 𝟒) 𝟑𝟔
𝒛 =𝟑

𝒆𝒊𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒊 𝒅 𝒊𝒛
‫𝒛( 𝟑= 𝒛 ׯ‬+𝒊)𝟐 𝒅𝒛 = [ 𝒆 ]𝒛=−𝒊 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊 × 𝒊𝒆𝒊 −𝒊
= −𝟐𝝅e
𝟏! 𝒅𝒛
Quiz: If ‫ 𝒛𝒅 𝒛 𝜸׬‬is defined on 𝜸, compute the following
integrals

𝜸 𝒕 = −𝒊 + 𝒕 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊 ; 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟏; 𝜸′ 𝒕 = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊

for
𝒊𝒕 𝟑𝝅
𝜸 𝒕 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒆 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟎; 𝜸′ 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒊𝒆𝒊𝒕
𝟐
END OF TODAY’S LECTURE