4.16 Statistical inference and hypothesis testing Statistical inference involves drawing conclusions about a population based on sample data, while hypothesis testing is a specific procedure within statistical inference used to evaluate the validity of claims or hypotheses by analyzing sample data. "Here's an explanation of each concept: 4.16.1. Statistical Inference: Statistical inference involves making conclusions, predictions, or generalizations about "a population based on a sample of data. It aims to provide insights into the larger ‘population by using statistical techniques to analyze and interpret sample data. Statistical inference relies on the assumption that the sample is representative of the population from which it is drawn. There are two main types of statistical inference: a. _ Estimation: __ Estimation involves using sample data to estimate or infer the characteristics (Parameters) of a population. Point estimation provides a single value as an estimate, such as the sample mean as an estimate of the population mean. Interval estimation provides a range of values (confidence interval) within si population parameter is likely to fall. Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is a process used to make decisions or draw conclusions106 about a population based on sample data. It involves formulating a nun hypothesis (HO) and an alternative hypothesis (Ha), and then collecting and analyzing data to determine whether the evidence supports or rejects the null hypothesis. Hypothesis testing provides a framework for making statistical decisions and evaluating the significance of findings. 4.16.2. Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is a statistical procedure used to assess the valid hypothesis about a population parameter. It involves the following steps 2) Formulating the Hypotheses: The researcher defines the null hypothesis (HO), which represents the defauit assumption or claim about the population. The alternative hypothesis (Ha) represents the claim that contradicts the null hypothesis and is supported if there Is sufficient evidence. b) Selecting the Significance Level: The significance level, denoted as « (alpha), is the probability of rejecting the ‘ull hypothesis when itis actually true. Commonly used significance levels are 0.05 oF 0.01, representing a 5% or 1% chance of making a Type | error (rejecting - atrue null hypothesis). ) Collecting and Analyzing Data: Data is collected from a sample, and appropriate statistical tests or procedures are applied to the data to calculate a test statistic. The choice of the statistical ‘test depends on the nature of the data and hypothesis being tested. a) Making a Decision: ‘The test statistic Is compared to a critcal value or p-value. Ifthe test statistic falls in the critical region (extreme values), the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis. The p-value represents the probability of ‘obtaining a test statistic as extreme as or more extreme than the observed ‘value, assuming the null hypothesis is true. If the p-value is less than the | __ significance level, the null hypothesis is rejected. ‘e) Drawing Conclusions: Based on the decision made in the hypothesis test, conclusions are drawn about the population. Ifthe null hypothesis is rejected, it suggests that there is sufficient evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. f the null hypothesis is not rejected, it means there is insufficient evidence to support the alternative hypothesis, but it does not necessarily prove the null hypothesis to be true. Hypothesis testing Is widely used in research studies, quality control, medical trials, and many other fields to assess the significance of findings and make informed decisions based on statistical eviden of a claim or109 5, Stata: Sata Isa statistical software package widely used in socal sciences, economics, and epidemiology. It provides a wide range of statistical procedures, data management capabilities, and powerful graphics, 6 JM IMP isa statistical discovery software with a user-riendly interface that allows users ‘0 explore data, perform analyses, and visualize results. It is commonly used in research, engineering, and quality control 7. IBM SPSS Statistics: IBM SPSS Statistics is a comprehensive software package for data analysis and predictive modeling. It offers a wide range of statistical procedures, data management apabilties, and integration with other 18M tools. These statistical software applications provide advanced statistical techniques, data n capabilites, and visualization tools to analyze and interpret data, The tholee of software depends on factors such as the specific analysis requlrements, domain expertise, ease of use, and available budget. 1.18 Quantitative reasoning ten example /exercises using fundamental statistical concepts “Here are ten additional examples of quantitative reasoning exercises that utilize fundamental statistical concepts: “1. Descriptive Statistics: "Exercise: Calculate the range, variance, and standard deviation of a dataset Tepresenting the dally temperatures for a month. Interpret these measures and discus the variability in the weather. 12.Probability: : Filpafair col five times and calculate the probability of getting exactly - three heads. Use the binomial probability formula to determine the result. 3. Sampling Distribution: Exercise: Take multiple samples from a population and calculate the mean of each ‘sample. Construct a sampling distribution of the sample means and discuss the of the central limit theorem. a : “ ears rete ce sen sample : 12 295% confidence interval forthe population mean using the deviation. 5. Hypothesis Testing: Exercise: Test whether the average ‘methods (e.g, car and public