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Remote Sensing of Glaciers
Techniques for Topographic, Spatial and Thematic
Mapping of Glaciers

Petri Pellikka
Department of Geosciences and Geography
University of Helsinki, Finland

W. Gareth Rees
Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge
England

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

“fm” — 2009/11/30 — 13:04 — page iii — #3

Cover information:
Heinrich Schatz and Hans Hess enjoying a smoke while surveying the confluence of Hintereisferner and
Kesselwandferner in 1929.
Svartisen ice caps in Norway in Landsat ETM+ satellite image of September, 7, 1999. (Heiskanen, J., K. Kajuutti,
M. Jackson, H. Elvehøy & P. Pellikka, 2003. Assessment of glaciological parameters using Landsat satellite data in
Svartisen, Northern Norway. EARSeL eProceedings 2 1/2003, 34-42. Observing our Cryosphere from Space).

CRC Press/Balkemais an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by Vikatan Publishing Solutions (P) Ltd, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd,
Padstow, Cornwall
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the
information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without written prior permission from the publisher.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the
quality of this publication and the information herein, no
responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any
damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use
of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk – www.balkema.nl
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Remote sensing of glaciers : techniques for topographic, spatial, and
thematic mapping of glaciers / editors, Petri K.E. Pellikka, W. Gareth
Rees Petri K.E. Pellikka.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-40166-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-0-203-85130-2 (e-book)
1. Glaciers–Remote sensing. 2. Glaciers–Measurement. 3. Climatic
changes. I. Pellikka, Petri K.E. II. Rees, Gareth, 1959-III. Title.
GB2401.72.R42R45 2010
551.31’20223–dc22
2009047393

ISBN: 978-0-415-40166-1 (Hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-85130-2 (eBook)

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

“fm” — 2009/11/30 — 13:04 — page iv — #4

Contents

Foreword xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Author biography xvii
Preface: Remote sensing of glaciers – glaciological research
using remote sensing xix
Abbreviations xxiii

1 Principles of remote sensing 1

1.1 Background 1
1.2 Electromagnetic radiation 2
1.3 What properties of EMR can be measured? 3

1.4 Resolution 5
1.4.1 Spatial resolution 5
1.4.2 Spectral resolution 7

1.4.3 Radiometric resolution 7

1.4.4 Temporal resolution 8

1.5 How are electromagnetic measurements converted into

information about glaciers? 9

1.6 Passive remote sensing systems 9

1.6.1 Aerial photography 10
1.6.2 Visible/near infrared scanners 10

1.6.3 Thermal infrared scanners 14

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 vi Contents

1.7 Active remote sensing systems 15

1.7.1 Laser scanner (LiDAR) 15

1.7.2 Ground-penetrating radar 15

1.7.3 Synthetic Aperture Radar 16

1.8 How are data obtained? What do they cost? 19

2 The formation and dynamics of glaciers 21

2.1 Introduction: How do glaciers form? 21

2.2 The climate of today’s glacier environment 21

2.3 Accumulation and the formation of ice 25

2.4 Energy balance and ablation 26
2.5 Mass balance: Definitions and key parameters 27

2.6 Ice flow 28

2.7 Methods of mass balance determination 33
2.7.1 The geodetic method 33
2.7.2 The direct glaciological method 34

2.7.3 The dynamic (balance) velocity method 35

2.7.4 The hydrological method 36

2.8 Debris cover and moraines 36

2.9 Conclusions 37

3 Glacier parameters monitored using remote sensing 41

3.1 Introduction 41

3.2 Glaciers in the world 41

3.3 Reflectance and albedo 43

3.4 Surface temperature and surface melting 45

3.5 Glacier zones and mass balance 48

3.5.1 Glacier zones 48

3.5.2 Glacier mass balance 51

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 Contents vii

3.6 Glacier area 55

3.7 Glacier topography 56

3.8 Bed topography and glacier volume 59

3.9 Glacier velocity 60

3.10 Summary 62

4 The early history of remote sensing of glaciers 67

4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Early glacier observations 67
4.3 The scientific approach 70

4.3.1 Glacier mapping from point observations 71

4.4 The dawn of photogrammetry 72
4.5 The golden age of terrestrial glacier mapping 75
4.6 The aerial perspective and the step into a new age 77

5 Physics of glacier remote sensing 81

5.1 Introduction 81

5.2 Glacier ice and snow 82

5.2.1 Formation of glaciers 82
5.2.2 Glacier surface layer: snow 84
5.2.3 Glacier surface layer: ice 88
5.2.4 Glacier flow 89

5.3 Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with ice and snow 90

5.3.1 General 90
5.3.2 Optical and near infrared signals 91

5.3.3 Thermal infrared signals 93

5.3.4 Microwave signals 94

5.4 Potential uses for remote sensing of glaciers 95

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 viii Contents

6 Terrestrial photogrammetry in glacier studies 99

6.1 The early days of terrestrial photogrammetry 101

6.2 The new era or digital terrestrial photogrammetry 102

6.3 Glacier DEMs from terrestrial close-range

photographs: Case study of Hintereisferner 104
6.3.1 The glacier surface as an object for terrestrial photography 104
6.3.2 The setting and equipment 106

6.3.3 Orientations and DEM production 108

6.3.4 Digital elevation models generated from
terrestrial photogrammetry 109
6.4 Prospects for terrestrial photogrammetry 110

7 Aerial photogrammetry in glacier studies 115

7.1 Introduction 115

7.2 Interpretation and mapping 116

7.3 Generation of digital terrain models 117
7.3.1 Analogue and analytical photogrammetry 117
7.3.2 Digital photogrammetry of frame imagery 118
7.3.3 Digital photogrammetry of airborne pushbroom imagery 120
7.4 Errors of photogrammetric DEMs 121

7.4.1 General 121

7.4.2 Case study 122
7.4.3 Error detection and DEM evaluation 123

7.5 Vertical DEM differences 124

7.6 Lateral terrain displacements 127

7.6.1 Analogue and analytical photogrammetry 127

7.6.2 Digital image matching 127

7.7 Conclusions 131

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 Contents ix

8 Optical remote sensing of glacier extent 137

8.1 Spectral properties 137

8.2 Glacier mapping and satellite sensor characteristics 140

8.3 Glacier mapping 145

8.3.1 Threshold ratio images 146

8.3.2 Manual corrections 149

8.4 Conclusions 149

9 SAR imaging of glaciers 153

9.1 Introduction 153
9.2 SAR image formation 154

9.3 SAR interferometry 157

9.3.1 InSAR for DEM generation 157
9.3.2 InSAR for surface displacement measurement 157
9.3.3 Error contributions in InSAR observed
surface displacements 160
9.3.4 Phase noise estimation 161

9.3.5 Decorrelation sources 162

9.4 SAR backscatter from snow and ice 162
9.4.1 Backscatter modelling 164
9.4.2 First order solution 165

9.5 SAR glacier flow velocity measurements 166

9.5.1 InSAR velocity 166
9.5.2 Feature tracking velocity 167

9.5.3 Speckle/coherence tracking velocity 169

9.5.4 SAR glacier velocity summary 169

9.6 SAR glacier DEM 169

9.7 SAR glacier facies detection 171

9.8 Summary 174

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 x Contents

10 Airborne laser scanning in glacier studies 179

10.1 Measurement principles and resulting data sets 179

10.2 Previous use of airborne laser scanning in glaciological studies 182

10.3 The airborne laser scanner data sets in the OMEGA project 184

10.4 Application of airborne laser scanning data in glacier studies 186

10.4.1 Surface elevation change 186

10.4.2 Derivation of glacier velocities 187

10.4.3 Surface roughness values as input for energy

balance modelling 188

10.4.4 Glacier surface classification 188

10.4.5 Automatic glacier delineation and crevasse detection 190
10.5 Conclusions 190

11 Ground-penetrating radar in glaciological applications 195

11.1 Introduction 195
11.2 Radio-wave propagation in glacier ice 195
11.3 Radar systems 198
11.3.1 An overview of radar systems used in glaciology 198

11.3.2 Radar system elements 200

11.3.3 Detection and resolution 202
11.4 Operating radars on glaciers 203
11.5 Processing techniques 207

11.6 Internal structure and ice properties 209

11.6.1 Internal layering 209
11.6.2 Density, water content, hydrological aspects 213

11.6.3 Crevasses 216

11.6.4 Englacial channels 216

11.7 Basal properties 216

11.7.1 Ice thickness and bedrock topography 218

11.7.2 Conditions at the glacier bed 218

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 Contents xi

11.8 Estimating ice volume and bed topography from

ice thickness data 218

11.8.1 Procedure for constructing glacier surface,

ice thickness and bed topography maps and for
estimating ice volume 220
11.9 Error in ice thickness 220

11.9.1 Vertical resolution of radar data 221

11.9.2 Error in thickness due to error in RWV 221

11.9.3 Error in thickness associated with lack of migration 223

11.9.4 Surface interpolation error 224

11.10 Error estimates for ice volume and bed topography computations 224

12 Detection and visualization of glacier area changes 231

12.1 Introduction 231

12.2 Simple image overlay 231
12.3 Orthorectification of satellite images 233

12.4 GIS-based calculations 235

12.5 Visualisation of glacier change 238
12.6 Recent glacier changes in the Alps 239

13 Detection of distortions in digital elevation models:

simultaneous data acquisition at Hintereisferner glacier 245
13.1 Introduction 245

13.2 Related work 246

13.3 Simultaneous data acquisition 248
13.4 Methods 250

13.4.1 Correction of differences in georeferencing 250

13.4.2 Detection of distortions 251

13.5 Results 252

13.5.1 Accuracy against ground truth data 252

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

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 xii Contents

13.5.2 Uncertainties due to different reference

coordinate systems 256
13.5.3 Mean and RMS differences in elevation between DEMs 258

13.5.4 Distortions 261

13.6 Conclusions 266

14 Accuracy aspects in topographical change

detection of glacier surface 269
14.1 Introduction 269

14.2 Previous research 269

14.3 Methods for detecting and measuring changes 270

14.3.1 Change in elevation 270

14.3.2 Change in volume 273

14.4 Case studies 275
14.4.1 Aerial photography and laser scanner DEMs
over Svartisheibreen 275
14.4.2 Sequence of laser scanner DEMs over Hintereisferner 278

14.5 Conclusions 282

15 The role of remote sensing in worldwide

glacier monitoring 285
15.1 Introduction 285

15.2 The global hierarchical observing strategy 285

15.3 The role of remote sensing 288
15.4 Global Land Ice Measurements from Space
project and other projects 291

16 Conclusions 297

Copyrights for figures 301

Authors 303
Reviewers 307
Subject index 309
Colour plates 315

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

“fm” — 2009/11/30 — 13:04 — page xii — #12

Foreword

Glaciers are an important part of the global cryosphere. They account for less than
1% of the total volume of ice locked up on land as glaciers and ice sheets, but are at
present the dominant cryospheric contributor to global sea-level rise. The question of
whether glaciers are growing or decaying, and at what rate, is therefore not only an
academic one but is also of direct interest to governments and policymakers. Glaciers,
and the larger ice caps beyond the margins of the great ice sheets of Antarctica and
Greenland, cover a total of several hundred thousand square kilometres. This very
large spatial scale implies that remote sensing instruments, whether deployed from the
air or from satellite platforms, are essential to the scientific investigation of glaciers
and their mass balance or state of health.
In fact, most glaciers, whether in the Arctic or in the mountain regions of the
World, are shrinking; that is to say, they are retreating and thinning. A clear task for
remote sensing is to provide quantitative datasets that can be used to measure the rates
at which such changes are taking place. These data need to be acquired over as long a
time series as possible, and with wide geographical coverage, so that any acceleration
in the rate of mass loss from glaciers in our warming World can be detected.
This book, edited by Petri Pellikka and Gareth Rees, brings together a number
of experts in the field of remote sensing of glaciers, to provide a set of authoritative
chapters that range from early terrestrial photogrammetry to the latest airborne laser
and satellite radar methods for investigating glacier change. Chapters on the mass
balance and flow of glaciers, and on the physical principles that underlie remote sensing
at various wavelengths, provide important background to those on instruments and
techniques of measurement. These chapters, taken together, provide a clearly focused
view of glacier measurement and monitoring that is an important contribution to
investigations of glacier mass balance, with its important implications for global sea-
level change over the coming century and beyond.

Julian Dowdeswell
Director
Scott Polar Research Institute
University of Cambridge

© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

“fm” — 2009/11/30 — 13:04 — page xiii — #13

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