DECCAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (DECCAN GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS) 2024-2025 NAME: TANVEER SULTANA DEPARTMENT: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SUBJECT: INTERNET OF THINGS UNIT Engineering loT Networks Things in IoT: Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects Wireless Sensor Networks, Communication protocols in WSNs, Criteria forconnecting smart objects, loT Access Technologies, IEEE802.15standardSensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects Sensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects: This section d smart objects and describes how they are the fundamental building blocks of ToT networks. Sensor Networks: This section covers the design, drivers for adoption, and deployment challenges of sensor networks, Sensors A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses. More tal measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading into a dil representation, That digital representation is typically passed to another device for it devices or humans, transformation into useful data that can be consumed by intel ns and the use of their five senses to lear i. they complement each other and compute together, empowering the human brain to make intelligent decisions, The brain is the ultimate decision maker, and it often uses several sources of sensory input to validate an event and compensate for “incomplete Naturally, a parallel can be drawn with h about their surroundings. Human senses do not ope te independently in silos. Inst information Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data. They can measure anything worth tum of rich an In fact, they are able to provide an extremely wide spe cement data with far greater precision than human senses; sensors provide This additional dimension of data makes the physical world an ineredibly valuable source of information, Sensors diverse measu superhuman sensory capabilities in be readily embedded in any physical objects that are easily connected to the Internet by wired or wireless works. Because these connected host physical objects with multidimensional sensis capabilities communicate with each other and external systems, they ean interpret the decisions, Connecting sensing devices in this way has ow paradi environment and make intellige ushered in the world of IoT and a whol .m of business intell There are myriad different sensors available to measure virtually everything in the physical world. There are a number of ways to group and cluster sensors into different categories, including the following: = Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and typically require an external power supply (active) or whether they simply r and typically require no external power supply (passive). nsors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is, part of the environment itis measuring (invasive) or external to it (non-invasive). Contact or no- ‘ensors can be categorized based on whether they require physical contact with what they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact) = Absolute or relative an absolute scale (absolute) or based on a difference with a fixed or variable refer- ence value (relative), ‘ensors ean be categorized based on whether they measure on= Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical where they are being used sur .ors ean be categorized based on the physical mechanism used to me rie, electrochemical, piezo- sory input (for example, thermoel resistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic), «What sensors measure: what physical variables they measure. wsors ean be categorized based on their applications or Note that this is by no means an exhaustive list, and there are many other classification and taxonomic schemes for sensors. including those based on material, cost, des other factors. The most useful classification scheme for the pragmatic application of in an ToT network, as described in this book. is to simply classify based on what physical his type of cat phenomenon a jorization is shown in Table 3-1 Table 3-1. Sensor Types Sensor Types __ Description Examples Position ‘A posi object; the position measuremer jon sensor measures the position of an Potentiomet can be either —_inelinometer in absolute terms (absolute position sensor) or in proximity sensor relative terms (displacement sensor). Position sensors ean be linear, angular, or mul ‘Oveupaney Occupancy sensors det cctrie eye, radar 1 the presence of people EI and motion and animals in a surveillance area, while motion sensors detect movement of people and objects. The difference between the two is that oceupaney sensors generate a signal even when a person is fationary, whereas motion sensors do not. Velocity and Velocity (speed of motion) sensors may be ‘Accelerometer, linear or angular, indi moves along a straight line or how fast it rotates. ting how fast an object ayroseope Acceleration sensors measure changes in velocity Foree Fore sensors detect whether a physical foree is Foree gauge, applied and whether the magnitude of force is viscometer, tactile beyond a threshold. sensor (touch sensor) Pressure Pressure sensors are related to foree sensors, Barometer, Bourdon measuring force applied by liquids or gases, gauge, piezometer Pressure is measured in terms of force per unit area, Flow Flow sensors detect the rate of fluid flow. They Anemometer, mass measure the volume (mass flow) or rate (flow flow sensor, water velocity) of fluid that has passed through a sys- meter tem in a given period of time.Sensor Types _Descri Examples ‘Acoust ‘Acoustic sensors measure sound levels and Microphone. convert that information into digital or analog geophone. data signals, hydrophone Humidity Humidity sensors detect humidity (amount of Hygrometer, water vapor) in the air or a mass. Humidity humistor, soil levels ean be measured in Various way's: absolute moisture sensor humidity, relative humidity, mass ratio, and so on, Light sensors detect the presence of light (visible Infrared sensor or invisible). photodetector flame detector Radiation Radiation sensors detect radiation in the Geiger-Maller environment. Radiation can be sensed by counter, scintillator. seintillating or ionization detection, neutron detector Temperature Temperature sensors measure the amount of Thermometer, heat or cold that is present in a system. They calorimeter can be broadly of two types: contact and temperature non-contaet. Contaet temperature sensors need gauge to be in physical contact with the object being sensed. Non-contact sensors do not need physical contact, as they measure temperature through convection and radiation Chemical Chemical sensors measure the concentration of Breathalyzer, chemicals in a system. When subjected toa mix of —_olfactometer, smoke chemicals, chemical sensors are typically detector selective fora target type of chemical (for example, a CO, sensor senses only carbon dioxide), Biosensors Biosensors detect various biological elements, Blood glucose such as organisms, tissues, cells, enzymes, biosensor antibodies. and nucleic acid pulse oximetry electrocardiograph Source: , Holdowsky et al,, Inside the Internet of Things: A Primer on the Technologies Building the IoT, August 21, 2015, http://dupress.deloitte.com dup-us-en/focus/intemetof iot-primer-iot-technologies-applications html Sensors come in all shapes and sizes and, as shown in Table 3-1, can measure all types of physical conditions, A fascinat use case to highlight the power of sensors and IoT is in the area of precision agriculture (sometimes referred to as smart farming), whieh uses efficiency, sustainability. and profitability a variety of technical advances to improve theof traditional farming practices. This includes the use of GPS and satellite aerial imagery for determining field viability; robots for high-precision planting, harvesting, irrigation, and so on; and real-time analytics and artificial intelligence to prediet optimal crop yield, weather impacts. and soil quality Among the most significant impacts of precision agriculture are those dealing with of a variety of soil characteristics. These include real- t of soil quality, pH levels, salinity, toxicity levels, moisture lev. irrigation planning, nutrient levels for fertilization planning, and so on, All this detailed sensor data can be analyzed to provide highly valuable and actionable insight to boost productivity and crop yield. Figure 3-1 shows biodegradable, passive microsensors to measure soil and crop and conditions, These sensors, developed at North Dakota State University (NDSU). can be planted directly in the soil and left in the ground to biode~ grade without any harm to soil quality Figure 2-1 Biodegradable Sensors Developed by NDSU for Smart Farming (Reprinted with permission from NDSU.) IoT and, by extension, networked sensors have been repeatedly named among a small number of emerging revolutionary technologies that will ehange the global economy and shape the future. The staggering proliferation of sensors is the principal driver of this phenomenon. The astounding volume of sensors is in large part due to their smaller siz their form factor, and their decreasing cost. These factors make possible the economic and technical feasibility of having an increased density of sensors in objects of all types. Perhaps the most significant accelerator for sensor deployments is mobile phones. More than a billion smart phones are sold each year, and each one has well over a dozen set sors inside it (see Figure 2-2), and that number continues to grow each year. Imagine the exponential tending sensors to practically every technology, industry, and vertical, For example, there are smart homes with potentially hundreds of sensors, intel ligent vehicles with 100+ sensors each, connected cities with thousands upon thousands of connected sensors, and the list goes on and on.Thermo cconmneson| cl Pstonng Magnetoreter ‘Sten (5), am sense Touehsceen| Sones Gyroscope Opa Baer ose Posse Senor Sensor ger ene ‘err nsors ina Smart Phone Figure 2-2 I's faseinating to think that that a trillion-sensor economy is around the corner, Fig sand some bold predictions for sensor numbers in the upcoming years. There is a strong belief in the sensor industry that this number will eclipse a trillion in the next few years. In fact, many we 2-3 shows the explosive year-over-year inerease over the past several y players in the sensor industry have come together to form industry consortia, such as the TSensors Summits (www:tsensorssummit org), to create a strategy and roadmap for a trillion-sensor economy. The tillion-sensor economy will be of such an unprecedented and unimaginable seale that it will change the world forever. This is the power of [oT 4100,000,000,000,000 410,000,000,000,000 3 8 100,000,000,000 10,000,000,000 ‘SensorsiYears 3 100,000,000 10,000,00¢ 2007 2012 2017 2022 2027 2032 2037 Figure 2-3. Growth and Predictions in the Number of SensorsActuators Actuators ar natural complements to sensors. Figure 2-4 demonstrates the symmetry and con plementary nature of these two types of devices. As discussed in the previous section, sensors are designed to s the physi .¢ and measure practically any measurable variable | world, They convert their measurements (typically analog) into electric si als or digital representations that ean be consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a human). Actuators. on the others hand. n. ntrol signal (commonly an ive some type of c electric signal or digital command) that triggers a physical effeet, usually some type of motion, force, and so on Sense Measure i Sensors Real World — Physical Environment Digital Representation ~ Electric Signal ey Useful Act Work Figure 2-4 How Sensors and Actuators Interact with the Phy The previous section draws a parallel between sensors xd the human senses, This par- allel can be extended to include actuators, as shown in Figure 3-5. Humans use their five senses to sense and measure their environment. The sensory organs convert this sensory information to electrical impulses that the nervous system sends to the brain for processi 12. Likewise, IoT sensors are devices that sense and measure the physical world and (typically) signal their measure micropro The human brain signals motor funetion and movement, and the nervous system carries that information to the ents as electric signals sent to some type of sssor or microcontroller for additional process send an al to an actuator that translates the signal into some type of movement (linear, rotati appropriate part of the muscular system, Correspondingly, a processor can electric si nal, and so on) or usefull work that changes or has a measurable impact on the physical world. This interaction between sensors, actuators, and pro the similar functionality in biolo sors and al systems is the basis for various technical fields, including roboties and biometries.Figure 2-5 Comparison of Sensor and Actuator Functionality with Humans Much like ser common ways that they can be classified i 1. Some sors, actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so Jude the following motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they (for example, linear, rotary, one/two/thr xe8). «Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power, low power, micro power) = Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state outputs, oA Actuators ean be classified based on the specific industry or of applicatio vertical where they are used «Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.Table 2-2 Actuator Classification by Energy Type Type Examples Mechanical actuators Lever, sorew jack, hand erank Bleetrical actuators Thyristor, biopolar transistor, diode Electrom: nieal actuators. AC motor, DC motor, step motor Type Examples Electrom tic actuators Electromagnet, linear __ solenoid Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators Hydraulic eylinder. pneumatie eylinder piston, pressure control valves, air motors ‘Smart material actuators (includes thermal and magnetic actuators) Shape memory alloy (SMA), fluid, magnetorestrictive material, bimetallic strip, piezoelectric bimorph Miero- and nanoaetuators Eleetrostatie motor, mierovalve, eomb drive Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Figure 2-6 shows a torsional ratcheting actuator (TRA) that was developed by Sandia National Laboratory as a low-voltage alternative to a micro-Figure 2-6 Torsional Ratcheting Actuator (TRA) MEMS (Courtesy Sandia National Laboratories, SUMMiT™ Technologies, www.sandia.gou/mste.) Smart Objects nart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform everyday objects into a network of intelliger objects that are able to learn from and with their environment in a meaningful way. It can’t be stressed enough that the real power of smart objects in IoT comes from being networked together rather than being isolated as standalone objects. This ability to communicate over a network has a multiplicative effect and allows for very sophistica between disparate smart obj inter ed correlation and interact cts. For instance, recall the smart farming sensors describedpreviously. If'a sensor is a standalone device that simply measures the humidity of the soil. it is interesting and useful, but it isn’t revolutionary. If that same sensor is connected as part of an intelligent network that is able to coordinate intelligently with actuators to trigger irrigation systems as needed based on those sensor readings, we have something far more powerful, Extendit g that even further, imagine that the coordinated si sensor/actuator sets to further actuator set is intelligently interconnected with other coordinate fertilization, pest control, and so on—and even communicate with an intel ligent backend to ea culate erop yield potential, This now starts to look like a complete system that begins fo unlock the power of ToT and provides the intelligent automation we have come to expect from such a revolutionary technology. Smart Objects: A Definition The following four defining charaeteristies 7) (see Figure Processing unit: A smart object has some type of pro ssing unit for acquiring data, processing and analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinat ing control signals to any actuators, and controlling a variety of funetions on the smart object, including the communication and power systems. The specific type of processing unit that is used can vary greatly, depending on the specifie processing, needs of different applications. The most common is a microcontroller bs ofits small form factor, flexibility, programming simplicity, ubiquity, low power consumption, and low cost. with the =Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interact physical world through sensors and actuators. As described in the previous sections, a sensor learns and measures its environment, whereas an actuator is able to produce some chan ¢ in the physical world. A smart object does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending upon the application. =Communication device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting t object with other smart objects and the outside world (via the network). for smart objects can be either wired o wireless, Communication devie: Overwh essly interconnected for mingly, in IoT networks smart objects are wit a number of reasons, including cost, limited infrastructure availability, and ease of deployment. There are myriad different communi jon protocols for smart objects. In fact, much of this book is dedicated to how smart objects communicate within an [oT network, especially Chapter 4, “Connecting Smart Objects,” Chapter“IP as the loT Network Layer” and Chapter , ‘Application Protocols for IoT.” Thus, this chapti provides only a high-leve] overview and refers to those other chapters for amore detailed treatment of the sub ject matter Power sourc the most signific Smart objects have components that need to be powered, Interestingly power consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart ob power requirements also vary greatly from application to application Typically smart objects are Limited in power are deployed for a very long time, and are not easill ect. AS with the other three smart object building blocks, the essible. This combination, especially when the smart ob, t relies on battery power, imp low power consumption hardware, and so on are critical design elements. For long- term deployments where snart objects are, for all practical purposes, inaccessible, power is commonly obtained from scavenger sources or is obtained in a hybridized manner, also tapping into infrastructure power: that power efficiency, judicious power management, sleep modes, ultra and so on) lar piezoe Sensor ‘That can measure physical data (temperature, vibration, pollution...) Actuator Capable of performing a task (change traffic lights, rotate a mirror...) Tiny Low Cost Computer Embedded into objects to make them smart Gan be organized into networks Communication Device Receives instructions, sends or routes data ‘Self organizing into networks Power Source ‘Scavenger (solariwind), battery, mains Figure 2-7, Characteristics of a Smart ObjectTrends in Smart Objects ing: As discussed earlier, in reference to MEMS, there is a clear trend of ever-decreasing size. Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the naked eye. T s reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects, = Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart object continually consume less power, This is especially true for sensors, many of which are completely passive. Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years without battery replacement. ‘ocessing power smaller. This is a key advancement for smart obje, sing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and is, as they become increasingly complex and connected. =Communii t's no bi jon capabilities are improvin ually increasing, but they a surprise that wi pe ge. IoT is driving the development of mote and more specialized communication protocols covering a id =Communii jon is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the tandards for IoT communication protocols. In addition, re more and more open source efforts to advance [oT industry to develop op. the Sensor Networks A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that sense and measure their environment and/or actuators that act on their environment, The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and cooperating in a productive manner, Effective and well-coordinated communication and cooperation is a |ANETS are diverse prominent iallenge, primarily because the sensors and actuators in heterogeneous, and 1 constrained. SANETs offer highly coordinated sensi jes. Smart homes are a and actuation capabi type of SANET that display this coordination between distributed sensors and actuatorsFor example, smart homes can have temperature sensors that are strategically networked with heat or detects 1g. Ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) actuators. When a set a specified temperatu his can tri aor to take action and heat or cool the home as needed While su fact that (ed in a wired or wireless fashion, the ANETS are typically found in the “real world” means that they need an extreme level of deploym: sd to be \ding at HVAC entry t flexibility. For example, smart home temperatu expertly located in strategic locations throughout the home, i and exit points. The following are some advant: and disadvantages at a wireless-based solution offers Advan Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or hard-to-reach places) Simpler se toa large number of nodes «Lower implementation costs Easier long ‘Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes, Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points) «Typically lower transmission speeds Greater level of impact/influence by environ Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are sometimes referred to as motes. The fact that there is no infrastructure to consider withWSIS is surely a power design constraints to consider with these wirelessly connected smart objects ul advantage for flexibie deployments, but there are a variety o! igure 2-8 illustrates some of these assumptions and constraints usually involved in WSNs. Low Memory Few tens of Kiobytes Embedded 0S TinyOS, Contiki ete...) Lossy Communications Low Power Wireless mesh predominantly IEEEB02 15.4 ‘Also IEEE P1902.1 (Power Line Comms) Moderate CPU Power Minimize energy use Narrowband Media Max 250KB/s, lower rates the norm Power Consumption Is Critical Energy efficiency is paramount Battery powered devices must last years. Figure 2-8 Design Constrain s for Wireless Smart Objects The following are some of, ant Linitations of the snart objects in WSN: ost signitic Limited processing power Limited menory Lossy communication jmited transni ssion speeds imi ted powerFigure 2-9 Data Aggregation in Wireles These limitations greatly influence how WSNS are designed, deployed, and utilized, The fact that individual sensor nodes are typically so limited is a reason that they are often deployed in very large numbers. As the cost of sensor nodes continues to decline, the ability to deploy highly redundant sensors becomes increasingly feasible. Because many ‘nsors are very inexpensive and correspondingly inaceurate, the ability to deploy smart objects redundantly allows fori ¢ numbers of sensors permit the introduction of hierarchies of smart objects. h a hierarchy provides, among other organizational advantages, the ability to aggregate similar sensor readings from sensor nodes that are in close proximity to each ie 3-9 shows an example of such a data adi average temperature reading, = ‘Average Temperature sre\ 115°C i> e <—__ 13°C 11.8°C Ss & from a logical grouping of temperature sensors are aggregated as an 17°C = nsor NetworksThese data aggregation techniques are helpful in reducing the amount of overall traffic (and energy) in WSNs with very large numbers of deployed smart objects. This data aggregation at the network edges is where fog and mist computing, discussed i Chapter 2. “ToT Network Archi sded to deliver the seale and performanee required by so many IoT use cases. While which sensors continuously stream their measurement data, snerally have one coture and Design,” are critical [oT architect there are certain instances this is typically not the case. Wirel ing two communication patterns sly connected smart objects of the followi driven: Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart object detects a particular event or predetermined threshold «Periodic: Transmission of sensory information oecurs only at periodic intervals. The decision of which of these communication schemes is used depends greatly on the medical us specific application. For example. in som sensors periodically send postoperative vitals, such as temperature or blood pressure eadings. In other medical only use cases, the same blood pressure or temperatur readings are measured. eadings are triggered to be se when certain critically low or h As WSNs grow to very Ia asing levels of autonomy. For example, manual configuration of pote numbers of smart objects, there is a trend toward ever ally thousands of smart objects is impractical and unwieldy, so smart objects in a WSN are typically self-configuring or automated by an IoT management platform in the back- ground, Likewise, additional levels of autonomous functions are required to establish cohesive communication among the multitudinous nodes of large-scale WSNs that are often ad hoe deployments with no For example, there is an inereasing trend toward small sensor nodes (that is, MEMS) are s tions, temperature, humidity. and so on. Th such as military (for example, deteet 1rd for uniform node distribution and/or density. “smart dust” applications, in whieh very tered over a geographic area to detect vibra~ technology has practically limitless capa- bilities ny troop movement), environmental (for example, detecting earthquakes or forest fires), and industrial (for example, detecting 4 tracking). Some level of self-organization is required for manufacturing anomalies, ass retworking the seads of wireless smart objects such that these nodes autonomously eome together to form a true network with a common purpose. This capability to self-organize is able to adapt and evolve the logical topology of a W! (among nodes as well as to centralized wireless controllers), simplify the introduction of SN to optimize communication new smart objects, and improve reliability and access to services art Additional advantages of bs ts are the inherent abi i able to deploy large numbers of wireless low-cost si ty to provide fault tolerance. reliability, and the capability a WSN, especially in scenarios where the smart objects have limited battery life, Autonomous techniques, such as self-healing, self-protection, and self-optimization, are often employed to perform these functions on behalf of an overall WSN system, IoT applies scale WSNS, the overall system can’t fail if the environment sudder tion is temporarily lost, or a limited number of nodes run out of battery power or function improperly ions are often mission critical, and in larg ly changes, wireless commuCommunication Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks There ate literally thousands of different types of sensors and actuators. To further sreasingly heterogeneous, with more complicate. matters, WSNs are becoming sophisticated interactions, This heterogeneity is manifested in a variety of ways, For instance, WSNS are seeing transitions from homogenous wireless networks made up of mostly a single type of sensor to networks n can even be a hybridized mix of many cheap sensors with a few expensive ones used for very specific h ade up of multiple types of sensors that \-precision functions. WSNs are also evolving from single-purpose multiple different applications at any giv of sensors, and one of those types is a temperature works to more flexible multipurpose etworks that ean use sps ific sensor types for time, Imagine a WSN that has multiple types sor that can be flexibly used concurrently for environm 1 applications, weather applications, and smart farming applications. uunieation with sophisticated in eractions by constrained devices within such a heterogeneous environment is quite a challenge. The protocols govern jon for WSNs must deal with the inherent det ing the communica of WSNS and the constr protocol must be able to scale to a large number of nodes. Likewise, when selecting ning characteristics wed devices within them. For instance, any communication ication protocol, you must carefully take into account the requirements of the specific application and consider any tradi between power consumption, maximum transmission speed, range, tolerance for packet loss, topology optimization, security. and so on. The fact that WSNs are often deployed outdoors in harsh and unpredietable environments adds yet another variable to consider be -qually rugged In addition to the aforementioned technical capabilities, they must also enable, as off the communication protocol offers 1use obviously not all communi ion protocols are designed to be needed, the overlay of autonomous techniques (for example, self-organization. self-healing, self-configuration) mentioned in the previous section Wireless sensor networks interact with their environment, Sensors often produce larg: amounts of sensing and measurement data that sds to be processed. This data can be processed locally by the nodes of a WSN or across zero or more hierarchical levels in ToT al levels are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.) Communi protocols need to facilitate routing and message handling for this data flow betwee! networks. (These hierarchi tion sensor nodes as Well as from sensor odes to optional gateways, edge compute, or cen tralized cloud compute. oT communication protocols for WSNs thus straddle the entire protocol stack. Ultimately. they are used to provide a platform for a variety of loT smart ate in multivendor As with any other networking application, in order to interop \dardized. This is a critical ts, these communication protocols must be sta ant success factors. [oT is one of those dependency for loT and one of the most signi rare technologies that impacts all verticals and industries, which means standardiza- tion of communication protocols is a complicated task. requiring protocol definition across multiple layers of the stack, as well a standards development organizations, feat deal of coordination across multipleoT devices and sensors must be connected to the network for their data to be utilized The followii gsubseetions look closely at these eriteria’ ‘Range: This section examines the importance of signal propagation and distance. 4 Bands: This section deseribes licensed and unlicensed spectrum, including sub-GHz frequencies. Power Consumptioi connected to a stable power source compat This section discusses the considerations required for devices ed to those that are battery powered Topology: This section highlights the v connecting multiple smart objects ous layouts that may be supported for Constrained Devices: This sectic from a connectivity perspective details the limitations of certain smart objects Node Networks: This section hi recting smart objects. ss that are often encountered with networks cThe following subsections cover technologies for connecting smart objects: sTEEE 802.15.4: This section hi wireless protocol for connes ighlights IEEE 802.15.4, an older but foundational 1g smart objects, sIEEE 802.15.4g and IEEE 802.1: 802.15.4 that are targeted to util 4e: This section discusses jes and smart cities deployments SIEEE 1901.2a: This section discusses IEEE necting smart objects over power lines. 1901 2a, which is a technology for con- SIEEE 802.11ah: This section discusses IEEE 802.11ah, a technology built on the well-known 802,11 Wi-Fi standards that is specifically for smart objects, =LoRaWAN: This section discusses LoRaWAN, a scalable technology designed for distances with low power req irements in the unlicensed spectrum. =NB-loT and Other LTE Vari variations, which are often the smart objects over lon, ions: This section discusses NB-IoT and other LTE. choice of mobile service providers looking to conne er distances in the licensed spectrum. Communications Criteria In the world of connecting “thi number of wired and wireless ack Before reviewin technologies. it is important to talk about the criteria to usé various use cases and sy’ technologies are available or under developmen some of these access evaluating them for m solutions, Wireless communication is prevalent in the world of smart object connectivity, mainly because it eases deployment and allows smart objects to be mobile, changing location without losing connectivity Range How far does the signal need to be propagated? That is, what will be the area of coverage for a selected wireless technology? Should indoor versus outdoor deployments. be differentiated? Very often, these are the first questions asked when discussing wiredand wireless access technologies. The simplest approach to answering these types of questions is to categorize the: 8 as shown in Figu down into the following ranges: Figure 2-2.1 Wireless Access Landscape Short range: The classical wired example is a serial cable, Wireless short-range technologies are often considered as an alternative to a serial cable, supporting tens of meters of maximum distance between two devices. Examples of short-range wireless technologies are IEEE 802,15,1 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.7 Visible Light Communications (VLC). These short-range communication methods are found in only a minority of loT installations. In some cases, they are not mature enough for production deployment. For more information on these IEEE examples, see hitp://standards.ieve.org/about/get/802/802.15.html =medium range: This range is the main category of loT access technologies. In the range of tens to hundreds of meters, many specifications and implementations are available. The maximum distance is generally less than 1 mile between two deviees, although RF technologies do not have real maximum distances defined. as long as the radio signal is transmitted and received in the scope of the applicable specifica- tion. Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and 802.15.4g WPAN. Wired technologies such as IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE 1901.2 Narrowband Power Line Communications (PLC) may also be classified as medium range, depending on their physical mediacharacteristics. Long range: Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require long- technologies. Wireless examples are cellular (2G, 3G. 4G) and some applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi and Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologi LPWA communications have the ability to communicate over a large area without consuming much power. These technologies are therefore ideal for battery-powered ‘works, IEEE 802.3 over optical fiber and IEEE 1901 Broadband Power Line Communications are classified as lo range but are not really considered IoT aceess technologi IoT sensors. Found mainly in industrial n es, For more infor mation on these standards, see htp://standards.ieee.org/about/ge'802/802.3.html_and bttps://standards.iece.org/findstds/standard/1901-2010.html Frequency Bands Radio spectrum is regulated by countries and/or organizations, such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the ‘ederal Communications Commission (FCC), These groups define the regulations and transmission requirements for various squeney bands. For example. portions of the spectrum are allocated to types of telecommunica~ tions such as radio, television, military, and so on, Around the world, the spectrum for various communications uses is often viewed as a critical resource, For example, you ean see the value of these the cost that mobil operators pay for lic es in the cellular spe Focusing on ToT access technologies, the frequeney bands leveraged by wireless eommu- nications are split between licensed and unlicensed bands. Licensed spectrum is generally applicable to ToT lo range access technologies and allocated to communications infra structures deployed by services providers, public services (for example, first responders, military), broadcasters, and utilities. An important consideration for IoT access infrastructures that wish to utilize licensed spectrum is that users must subseribe to services when connecting their IoT deviees. This adds more complexity to a deployment involving large numbers of sensors and other IoT devices, but in exchange for the subscription fee. the network operator can guarantee jvity of the guarantee of service. the exel sequeney usage over the target area and ean therefore sell a betterImprovements have been made in handling the complexity that is inherent when deploying rum, Thanks to the development of IoT . such as the Cisco Jasper Control Center, automatin . deploy- large numbers of device: the licensed spe platforn the provisioniny ment, and management of large numbers of devices has become much easier. Examples of licensed spe lular, WiMAX, and Narrowband ToT (NB-IoT) technologies. trum commonly used for IoTT access are The ITU has also de! (ISM) portions of the radio bands. Th range devices (SRDs). Unlicensed means that no gi sd unlicensed spectrum for the industrial, scientific, and medical sd in many co' 1 frequencies are u wunications technologies for short arantees. or protections are offered in the ISM bands for device communications. For IoT access, these are the most well-known ISM bands: #2.4 GHz band as used by IEEE 802.1 Ib/g/n Wi-Fi SIEBE 802.15.1 Bluetooth IEEE 802.154 WPAN An unlicensed band, such as those in the ISM range of frequencies, is not unregulated. National and regional regulations exist for each of the allocated frequency bands (much as with the licensed bands). These regulations mandate device compliance on parameters such as transmit power, duty cyele and dwell time, channel bandwidth, and channel hopping Unlicensed spectrum is usually simpler to deploy than licensed because it does not ause other require a service provider, However, it can suffer from more interference bs for the same frequency in a specific area. This becomes a key is, Should an [oT int dev astructure utilize unlicensed element in decisions for loT deploymet spectrum available for private networks or licensed frequenei service provider? Various LPWA technologies are taking on a greater importance when it this question. In addition to meeti ents, LPWA communications are able to cover long distanees that in the past required the licensed bands offered by service providers for cellular devices, es that are dep comes to answe jow power requiretSome communications within the ISM bands operate in the sub-GHz. range. Sub-GHz, bands are used by protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4, 802.15.4g, and 802.1 lah, and LPW. technologies such as LoRa and Sigfox. (All these technologies are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.) The frequency of transmission directly impacts how a signal propagates and its practi cal maximum range. (Range and its importance to ToT a chapter.) Bither for indoor or outdoor deployments, the sub-GFiz frequency bands allow greater distances between de\ ISM band to penetrate buildi transmit power within regulation, sess are diseussed earlier in this es. These bands have a better ability than the 2.4 GHz the infrastructures or go around obstacles, while keepin The disadvantage of sub-GHz frequency bands is their lower rate of data delivery com- pared to higher frequi rates. Therefore. the lower transmission speeds of sub-GHz technolo concern for IoT sensor deployments. jes, However, most IoT sensors do not need to send data at high are usually not a ‘The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), in the European Radiocommunications Committee (ERC) Recommendation 70- defines the 868 MHz frequeney band, CEPT was established in 1959 as a coordinat- ing body for European state telecommunications and postal org enerally apply Recommendation 70-03 to their national telecommunieations nizations, European countr regulations, but the 868 ME definition is also applicable to regions and countr outside Europe. For example. India, the Middle East, Africa, and Russia have adopted EPT definitions, some of them making minor revisions. Recommendation 70-03 mostly characterizes the use of the 863-870 MEL band, the allowed transmit power or EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power), and duty cycle (that is, the percentage the of time a device can be active in transmission). BIRP is the amount of power that an antenna would emit to produce the peak power density observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain. The 868 MHz band is applicable to IoT ac sueh as IEE 802.154 and 802.15.4g, $02.1 1ah, and LoRaWAN, (These protocols are covered later in this chapter.) nologiesCentered on 915 MHz, the 902-928 MHz frequency band is the main unlicensed sub-GHz band available in North Am ind it conforms to FCC regulations (FCC- Part-15.247). Countries around the world that do not align on the CEPT ERC 70-03 1 of the 902-928 MHz range or a subset of it tor ANATEL defi 902-907,5 and 915-928 MHz ranges (ANATELS06). the Japanese regulator ARIB provi- sions the 920-928 MHz range (ARIB-T108), and in Australia, ACMA provides recom- nendations for the 915-928 MHz range. As mentioned previously, even though these recommendation generally endorse the in their national regulations. For example, Brazil es the use of bands are unlicensed. they are regulated. The regulators document parameters, such as channel bandwidth, channel hopping, transmit power or EIRP, and dwell time. Power Consumption While the definition of IoT device is v ry broad. there is a clear delineation betw powered nodes and battery-powered nodes. A powered node has a direct connection to a power source, and communications are usually not limited by power consumption e of deployment of powered nodes is limited by the availability of a power souree, which makes mobility more complex criteria, However. Battery-powered nodes bring much more flexibility to Io’ devices, These nodes are often of their batteri classified by the required lifeti Does a node need 10 to 15 years of battery life, su ‘as on water or gas meters? Or is a 5- to 7-year batte for devices such as smart parking sensors? Their batteries can be changed or the devices replaced when a street gets resurfaced, For devices under regular maintenance, a batt life of 2 to 3 years is an option ToT wireless access technologies must address the eds of low power consumption and connectivity for battery-powered nodes. This has led to the evolution of a new wireless Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA). Obviously, it is possible to run just about any wireless technology on batteries, However. in environment known ality, no operational deployment will be acceptable if hundreds of batteries must be chan ged every month,ired IoT access technologies consisting of powered nodes are not exempt from power optimization, In the ease of deployment of smart meters over PLC, the radio interface on meters can’t consume 5 to 10 watts of power, or this will add up to @ 20-million-meter deployment consuming 100 to 200 m watts of energy for communi tions Topology Among the access technologies available for connecting IoT devices. three ogy schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and pe ain topol- range and shorts to-peer. For lon technologies, a star topology is prevalent, as seen with cellular, LPWA, and Bluetooth networks. Star topologies utilize a single munications with endpoints tral base station or controller to allow com For medium-range technologies. a star. peer-to-peer. or mesh topology is common, as shown in 2-2.2 Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate with any other de of each other. Obviously, peer-to-peer topolo- gies rely on multiple full-function devices. Pee jee as long as they are in ra to-peer topologies enable more complex formations, such as a mesh networking topology For example, indoor Wi-Fi deployments are mostly a set of nodes forming a star topol- found their aecess points (APS). Meanwhile, outdoor Wi-Fi may consist of a mesh topology for the backbone of APs, with nodes connecting to the APs in a star topology Similarly, IEE 802.15.4 and 802.15 4g and even wired IEEE 1901.2a PLC are generally deployed as a mesh topology, A mesh topology helps cope with low transmit power searchi c by having intermediate nodes cater overall distance, and covera relaying traffic for other nodes, to reach a ‘tar Topology Mesh Topology Peer-to-Peer Topology @ Full Function Device Reduced Function Device Figure 2-2.2 Star, Peer-to-Peer, and Mesh TopologiesMesh topology requires the implementation of a Layer 2 forwarding protocol known as mesh-under or a Layer 3 forwarding sted to as mesh-over on each protocol intermediate node. (See Chapter 5, “IP as the loT Network Layer,” for more informa- tion.) As discussed previously in Chapter 2, “loT Network Architectur intermediate node or full-function device (FFD) is simply a node that interconnects other odes, A node that doesn’t interconnect or relay the traffic of other nodes is known ind Design,” an a leaf node. or reduced-function device (RFD). (More information on full-funetion and reduced-function devices is also pres fed later in this chapter.) While well adapted to powered nodes, mesh topology requires a properly optimized implementation for battery-powered nodes. Battery-powered nodes are often placed in a“sleep jode” to preserve battery life when not transmitting, In the case of mesh topol- ogy. cither the battery-powered nodes act as leaf nodes or as a “last resource path” to relay traffic when used as intermediate nodes. Otherwise, battery lifetime is greatly shortened. For battery-powered nodes, the topology type and the role of the node in the topology (for example. being an intermediate or leaf node) are suecessfill implementation, \jficant factors for a Constrained Devices The Internet E 7228 that different yeering Task Force (IETF) acknowledges in R categories of IoT devices are deployed, While categorizing the class of IoT nodes is perilous exercise, with computing. memory. storage, power. and networking continuously evolving and improving, RFC 7228 gives some definitions of constrained nodes. These definitions help dif desktop or laptop computers. and powerful mobile devices such as smart phones. jate constrained nodes from unconstrained nodes, such as servers, Constrained nodes have limited resources that impact their networking feature set and capabil According to RFC 7228, constrained nodes can be broken down into the classes defined in Table 4-1 jes. Therefore, some classes of IoT nodes do not implement an IP stack. Table 2-2.1 Classes of Constrained Nodes, as Defined by RFC 7228 Class Definition Class 0 This class of nodes is severely constrained, with less than 10 KB of memory and less than 100 KB of Flash pro. ind storage capability. The are typically battery powered. They do not have the resources directly implement an IP stack and associated secu An example of a Class 0 node is a push button that sends 1 byte o When changing its sta information This class is particularly well sui ed to leveraging new unlicensed LPWA wireless technologyClass Definition Class 1 While greater than Class 0. the prot and code space charac (approximately 10 KB RAM and approximately 100 KB Flash) of Class 1 are still lower than expected for a complete IP stack implementation, They cannot a full IP stack. However. these nodes ean implement an optimized stack specifically designed for constrained nodes, such as Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP). This, allows Class | nodes to engage in meaningful conversations with the net- work without the help of a gateway, and provides support for the necessary ity functions, Environmental sensors are an example of Class 1 nodes. Class 2 Class 2 nodes are characterized by rui ing full implementations of an IP stack on embedded devices. They contain more than 50 KB of memory and 250 KB of Flash, so they ean be fully integrated in IP networks, A smart power meter is an example of a Class 2 node. Constrained-Node Networks whil to laptops, smart phones, and so ore suited to specifically connect constrained nodes. Typical examples are IEEE 802.15.4 and 802.15.4g RF, IEE 1901.2a PLC, LPWA, and IEEE 802,11ah access technologies. (These technologies are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.) several of the IoT access technologies, such as Wi-Fi and cellular, are applicable ne [oT devices, some IoT access technologies are Constrained-node networks are offen referred to as low-power and lossy networks (LLNS), (See Chapter 5 for more details on LLNs.) Low-power in the context of LLNs refers to the fact that nodes must cope with the requirements from powered and battery- powered constrained nodes. Los y networks indicates that network performance may suffer from interference and variability due to harsh radio environments. Layer 1 and Layer 2 protocols that can be used for eonstrained-node networks must be evaluated bility: data rate and in the context of the following characteristics for use-case appl throughput, latency and determinism, and overhead and payload Data Rate and Throughput The data rates available from IoT aecess technologies range from 100 bps with protocols such as Sigfox to tens of megabits per second with technologies such as LTE and IEEE 802.1 lac. (Sigiox, LTE, and IEEE 802.1 ae are discussed later in this chapter.) Howev the actual throughput is less—sometimes much less—than the data rate, Therefore, understanding the bandwidth requirements of a particular technology. its applicability to given use cases, the capacity planning rules, and the expected real throughput are important for proper network design and successful production deployment. Technologies not particularly designed for JoT, such as cellul to Jo applications with high bandwidth requirements, For example, nodes involved with nodes are found and Wi-Fi, mateh up well video analyties have a need for hij retail, airport,and smart ties environments for detecting events and driving actions. Because these types of IoT endpoints are not constrained in terms of + network bandwidth, putin the design guidelines tend to focus on application requirements, such as lateney and determinism. Short-range technologies can also provide medium to high data rates that have enough throughput to co ndpoints, For example, Bluetooth sensors that are now appeari 12 on connected wearables fall into this category. In this case, the solutions focus more on footprint and battery lifetime than on data rate. The ToT access technologies developed for constrained nodes are optimized for low power consumption, but they are also limited in terms of data rate, which depends on the selected frequency band, and throughput With the data rate ranging from 100 bps to less than 1 Mbps, you may think back to the years when bandwidth was as ree resource, You often needed some expertise to under stand how to design such networks. Today this sort of expertise is helpful for LPWA networks, which are designed with a certain number of messages per day or per endpoint rather than just having mesh topology. an application’s behavior, such as frequency polling, impacts the design beeause all devices share the constrained bandwidth capacity pure bandwidth usage limit in place. In addition, in an access For example, let's consider an IEEE 802.15.4g subnetwork implementing 2FSK modula tion at 150 kbps for the 915 MHz frequeney band. (‘The IEEE 802.15.4g protocol is covered in more detail later in this chapter.) To cover the border case of distance and radio signal quality, Forward Error Correction (FEC) will be turned on, which lowers 0 kbps to 75 kbps. If you the two-way communication handling. and the variable data payload size, you end up with a maximum throughput of 30 to 40 kbps. This must be considered as the best value because the n and control plane overhead will also impact the throughput. the data rate from w add in the protocol stack overhead, ber of devices simultaneously comm icating along with the topology Another chara Upstream traflie toward an appli traffic from the application server. Understanding this behavior also helps whe Acristic of loT devies is that a majority of them initiate the communication. sation server is usually more common than downstrea deploying such as cellular, that is asymmetrical because the upstream band- width must be considered a key parameter for profiling the network capacity an IoT access technolog Latency and Determinism Much like throughput requirements, lateney expectations of IoT applications should be known when selecting an ss technology. This is particularly true for wireless net works, where packet loss and retransmissions due to inter fence, collisions, and noise are normal behaviors.In conclusion, the comm IoT acces ication criteria just covered are fundamental to understanding, their characteristics, and when they are most applicable. The criteria include range, fi ueney bands, power consumption, network topology, the presence of constrained devices and/or networks, and data throughput From a network engineer perspective, you must make sure an architectur with the proper abstraction for a particular acc« s developed sss technology. This is especially true for constrained network nodes, where quite often your choi of protocols and solutions can be limited, The next se ‘eviews the main IoT access technologies dedicated to constrained networks. ToT Access Technologies For each of the IoT access t Jhnologies discussed in this chapter, a common information set is being provided. Particularly, the follow topics are addressed for each ToT access technology Standardization and alliances: The standards bodies that maintain the protocols for a technology Physical layer: The wired or wireless methods and relevant frequencies #fAC layer: Considerations at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. which bri the physical layer with data link control Topology: The topologies supported by the hnology Security: Security aspects of the technology = Compet ologies: Other technologies that are similar and may be suitable alternatives to the given technologyIEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.4 is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data-rate devices that are powered or run on batteries, In addition to being low cost and offering a reasonable a compact protocol 12 both simple and flexible. Several network communication stacks. including deterministic ones, and profiles leverage this technology to address a wide markets. IEEE 802.15.4 is battery life, this access technology enables easy installation usi stack while remai of IoT use cases in both the consumer and busin commonly found in the following types of deployments: Home and building automation Automotive networks Industrial wireless sensor networks Interactive toys and remote controls Criticisms of IEEE 802.15.4 often focus on its MAC reliability, unbounded latency, and susceptibility to interference and multipath fading. The lateney often have to do with the Collision Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance tives around reliability and (CSMA/CA) algorithm, CSMA/CA is an access method in which a device “listens” 10 make sure no other devices are transmitting before startin its own transmission, If anoth device is transmitting, a wait time (which is usually random) oceurs before = 802.15.4) because it lacks a frequency-hopping technique. Later variants of 802.15.4 from the IEEE fistening” occurs again. Interfe -e and multipath fading oceur with IEE ee the seetion “IEPE 802.15.4e and 8$02.15.4g,” later in this start to address these issues, (S 2. chapter, for more information.) Standardization and Alliances IEEE 802.15.4 or IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4 defines low-data-rate PHY and MAC layer ations for wireless personal area networks (WPAN). This standard has evolved ps over the years and is a well-known solution for low-complexity wireless deviees with low data rates that need many months or even years of battery life, For more detailed TG4.huml information on IEEE 802.15.4, visit www:ieee802.org/15/pub,While there is no alliance or promotion body for IEEE 802.15.4 per se, the IEEE 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers are the foundations for several networki stacks. These protocol stacks make use of 802.15 but the upper layers are different. These protocol stacks are promoted separately through protocol at the physical and link layer levels, various organizations and often commercialized. Some of the most wel stacks based on $02.15.4 a known protocol highlighted in Table 4-2. Table 2-2 Protocol Stacks Utilizing IEE Protocol Deseri E 802.154 ZigBee Promoted through the ZigBee Alliance, ZigBee defines upper-layer components (network through application) as well as application profiles. Common profiles include building automation, home automation, and healtheare. ZigBee also defines device object funetions, such as deviee role, device discovery, network join, and security. For more information on ZigB is also discussed in more detail later in the see the Zi ‘igBee Alliance webpage, at www:zigh org. ZigBee xt Section 6LoWPAN ‘6LoWPAN is an IPv6 adaptation layer defined by the IETF 6LoWPAN roup that describes how to transport IPv6 packets over IEEE 802.154 layers. RFCs document header compression and IPv6 enhanee- worki ments to cope with the specific details of IEEE 802.15.4. (For more information on GLoWPAN, sce Chapter 5.) ZigBee IP ‘An evolution of the ZigBee protocol stack, ZigBee IP adopts the GLOWPAN adaptation layer, IPV6 network layer. and RPL routin; protocol. In addition, it offers improvements to IP seeurity. ZigBee IP is discussed in more detail later in this chapter. TSA100.11a {SA100.1 a is developed by the International Society of Automation (ISA) as “Wireless Systems for Industrial Automation: Process Control and Related Applications.” It is based on IEEE 802.15.4-2006, and sp published in 2010 and then as IEC 62734. The network and transport layers are based on IETF 6LoWPAN, IPv6, and UDP standards, ations wel irelessHART _ Wircles is a protocol stack that offers a time-synehronized, self-organizing, and HART, promoted by the HART Communication Foundation, self-healing mesh architecture, leveraging IEEE 802.15 4-2006 over the 2.4 GHz frequency band. A good white paper on WirelessHART can be found at http://www-emerson.com/resouree’blob; system-engineering-guidelines-iee-6259 1 -wirelesshart--data-79900 pdf Co for a secure and reliable mesh network to connect and control prod in the home. Group at www.threadgroup org ‘structed on top of IETF 6LOWPANIIPV6, Thread is a protocol stack ts Spe fications are defined and published by the ThreadBecause of its relatively long history compared to the others, ZigB well-known protocols listed in Table 4-2. In addition, ZigB time as evidenced by the release of Zigbee IP and is representative of how IEEE 802.15.4 can be leveraged at the PHY and MAC layers, independent of the protocol layers above. e IP are discussed in more detail in the follow- 's one of the most has continued to evolve over ZigBee Based on the idea of ZigBee-style networks in the late 1990s, the first ZigBee specifi tion was ratified in 2004, shortly after the release of the IEEE 802. 15.4 specification still had industry support from more than 100 companies upon its initial publication. This the previous year. While not released as a typical standard, like an RFC, ZigBi industry support has grown to more than 400 companies that are members of the ZigBee foup formed to certify interoperability between vendors and it is committed to driving and evolving Alliance. Similar to the Wi-Fi Alliance. the Zi ee Alliance is an industry ZigBee as an ToT solution for interconnecting smart objects. ZigBee solutions are a and low power needs. Fi by the ZigBe ‘manufacture them, ed at smart objects and sensors that have low bandwidth irthermore, products that are ZigBee compliant and certified Alliance should interoperate even though different vendors may The Zigbee specification has undergone several revisions, In the 2006 revision, sets of commands and message types were introduced, and increased in number in the 2007 (called Zigbee pro) iteration, to achieve different functions for a device, such as metering, temperatun or lighting control, These sets of commands and message types are called clusters. Ultimately, the: building blocks of Zigb application profiles like Home Automation or Smart Energy can e1 (ers from different functional domains or libraries form the pplication profiles, Vendors implementing pre-defined Zigbee ure interoperability between their produets. The main areas where ZigBee is the most well-known include automation for commercial retail, and home applications and smart energy. In the industrial and commercial automa- tion space, ZigBee-based devices can handle various functions, from measuring tempera ture and humidity to tracking assets. For home automation, ZigBee can control lighting. thermostats, and seeurity f netions, ZigBee Smart Eneray brings together a vari interoperable products, such as smart meters, that can monitor and control the use and delivery of utilities, such as electricity and water. These ZigBee products are controlled by the utility provider and can help coordinate usage between homes and. businesses and the utility provider itself to provide more effi jent operations, The traditional ZigBee stack is illustrated in Figure 2-2.3 As mentioned previously, ZigBee utilizes the IEEE 802.154 standard at the lower PHY and MAC layers. (The 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers are covered in detail later in this chapter.) ZigBee specifies the network and seeu ty layer and application support layer that sit on top of the lower layers.Zigbee or Application/Profiles Vendor Specie Application Support Zigbee Platform Stack Network and Security Layer IEEE 002.15.4 Figure 2-2.3 High-Level ZigBee Protocol Stack The ZigBee network and security layer provides mechanisms for network startup, co suring communications, This includes calculating routing paths figuration, routing, and si ag the routing ‘ighbors, and manag ing topology. discovering in what is often a chan tables as devices join for the first time. The network layer is also responsible for form as well, From the appropriate topology, which is often a mesh but could be a star or tre a security perspective, ZigBee utilizes 802.15.4 for security at the MAC layer, usi Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key and also provides security at the network and application layers. The application support layer in Figure 2-2.3 interfaces the lower portion of the stack deal- ing with the networking of ZigBee devices with the higher-layer appli and vendors can tions, ZigBee predefines many application profiles for certain industri optionally ereate their own custom ones at this layer. As mentioned previously, Home lar application profiles, Automationand Smart Energy are two examples of popu ZigBee is one of the most well-known protocols built on an IEEE 802.15.4 foundation On top of the 802.15.4 PHY and MAC layers, ZigBee specifies its own network and security layer and application profiles. While this structure has provided a fair dey vendors with membership in the ZigBee Alliance, it has not provided with the 0 of interoperability fo interoperability with other IoT solutions. However, this has started to chang aBee IP, which is discussed next release of Z:ZigBee IP With the introduction of Bee IP, the support of IEEE 802.15.4 continues, but the IP and TCP/UDP protocols and various other open standards are now supported at the network and transport layers, The ZigBee-spé of the protocol stack for the applications. ific layers are now found only at the top ZigBee IP was created to embrace the open standards coming from the IETF’s work on LLNs, such as IPv6, 6LoWPAN, and RPL They provide for low-bandwidth, low-power, and cost-effective communiea-tions when connecting smart objects, c IP is a critical part of the Smart Ener ZigBee Alliance. 8 systems, In faet, ZigBee IP was d ification from the 2.0 is aimed at smart meteris ited to ’igned specifically for SE 2.0 but it is not li a standards-based IoT stack ean utilize this use case. Any other applications that nei Zigbee IP. The ZigBee IP stack is shown in Figure 2-2.4 ZigBee IP (Smart Energy 2.0 Profile) upp TeP. IPV6,ICMPv6, SLOWPAN-ND | RPL. GLOWPAN Adaptation Layer EI 2008 MAC Figure 2-2.4 Ziglee IP Protocol Stack Unlike traditional ZigBee, discussed in the previous section, ZigBee IP supports GLoWPAN as an adaptation layer. (The GLoWPAN protocol is covered in Chapter 5.) ‘The 6LoWPAN mesh addressing header is not required as ZigBee IP utilizes the mesh- over or route-over method for forwarding packets. ZigBee IP requis the support of GLoWPAN’s fragmentation and header compression schemes, At the network layer, all ZigBee IP nodes support IPV, ICMPv6, and 6LoWPAN Neighbor Discovery (ND), and utilize RPL for the routing of packets across the mesh network. IPV6 and RPL are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. Both TCP and UDP are also supported, to provide both connection-oriented and connectionless service As you can see, ZigBee IP is a compelling protocol stack offering because it is based on current [oT standards at every layer under the application layer. This opens up opportuni- ties for Zi Bee IP to integrate and interoperate on just about any 802.15.4 network with other solutions built on these open IoT standards. The following sections take a deeper dive into 802,154 and its PHY and MAC layers.Physical Layer The 802.154 standard supports an extensive number of PHY options that range from 2.4 GHz to sub-GHz frequencies in ISM bands, (ISM bands are discussed earlier in this chapter.) The original IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard speciti based on dire ) modulation. DSSS is a modulation J only three PHY options sequence spread spectrum (DS technique in which a signal is intentionally spread in the frequeney domain, resulting in greater bandwidth, The original physical layer transmission options were as follows: #24 GHz, 16 channels, with a data rate of kbps #915 MHz, 10 channels, with a data rate of 40 kbps #868 MH, 1 channel, with a data rate of 20 kbps ‘You should note that only the 2.4 GHz band operates worldwide. The 915 MHz band operates mainly in North and South America, and the 868 MHz frequencies are used in Europe. the Middle East, and Africa, IEEE 802.15.4-2006, 802.15.4-2011, and IEEE 802.15.4-2015 introduced additional PHY eommunication options, including the following #OQPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing offset quadrature phase-shift keying (OQPSK) modulation. OQPSK is a modulation technique that uses four unique bit :d by phase changes. An offset funetion that is present during ably values that ai phase shifts allows data to be transmitted more rel = BPSK PHY: This is DSSS PHY, employing binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation, BPSK specifies two unique phase shifts as its data eneoding scheme. "ASK PHY: This is parallel sequence spread spectrum (PSSS) PHY, employing SK) and BPSK modulation. P scheme that offers increased range, throughput, data rates, and signal integrity ASK uses amplitude shifts instead of phase shifts to signal 'S is an advanced encoding amplitude shift keying ( compared to DS different bit values.6 Bytes 0- 127 Bytes —<— Start of Frame] Frame Preamble |" Delimiter | Length PHY Service Data Unit (PSDU) Synchronization Header | PHY Header <_<» 5 Bytes, 1 Byte Figure 2-2.5 IEEE 802.15.4 PHY Format The PHY Header portion of the PHY frame shown in Figur 5 is simply a frame Iengthvalue, It lets the receiver know how much total data to expeet in the PHY service data unit (PSDU) portion of the 802.4.15 PHY. The PSDU is the data field or payload. MAC Layer The 802.15.4 MAC layer performs the following tasks Network beaconing for deviees acting as coordinators (New devices use beacons to join an 802.15.4 network) PAN association and disassociation by a device Device security Reliable link communications between two peer MAC entities The MAC layer achieves these tasks by using various predef ied frame types. In fact four types of MAC frames are specified in 802.15 4: «Data frame: Handles all transfers of data Beacon ‘ame: Used in the transmission of beacons fom a PAN coordinatorAcknowledgement frame: Confirms the sui ressful reception of a frame MlACe nd frame: Responsible for control communication between devices Each of these four 802.15.4 MAC frame types follows the frame format shown in Figure 2-2.6. In Figure 2-2.6, notice that the MAC frame is carried as the PHY payload, The 802.15.4 MAC frame ean be broken down into the MAC Header, MAC Payload,and MAC Footer fields. The MAC Header field is composed of the Frame Control, Sequence Number and the Addressing fields. The Frame Control field defin ing modes, and other control flags. The Sequence Number fi s attributes such as frame type. address. eld indicates the sequ identifier for the frame. The Addr ssing field specifies the Source and Destination PAN Identifier fields as well as the Source and Destination Address fields. The MAC Payload field varies by individual frame type. For example, beacon frames Ids and p: fields present. The MAC Footer field is nothin ha loads lated to beacons, while MAC command frames more than a frame check sequence (FCS). An FCS is a calculation based on the data in the frame that is used by side to confirm the integrity of the data in the frame. MAC Frame 0 Bytes 28 1B , Variable 28 | TS ~__ => Desinton Soe Frame Frome Destnton Sourve =| Pan PAN Frame Payload Check. ea Identiier | Aces identior | ASSESS " Sequence PHY Frame ‘Start of Frame} i Preamble | Sait ofFfam¢| Frame Length PHY Service Data Unit PSDU) <—— 6 Bytes 0127 Bytes Figure 2-26 IEEE 802.154 MAC Format t extended MAC address, IEEE 802.15.4 requires all devices to support a unique 64-1 based on EUI-64, However, because the maximum payload is 127 bytes, 802.15.4 also how a 16-bit “short address” is assigned to devices. This short address is local tothe PAN and substantially reduces the frame overhead compared to a 64-bit extended MAC addres limited to specific upper-layer protocol stacks. However, you should be awat that the use of this short address might be Topology IEEE 802.15.4-based networks can be built as star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topologi s. Mesh networks tie together many nodes. This allows nodes that would of range if trying to communicate direetly to lever rmediary nodes to transfercommunications, Please note that every 802.15.4 PAN should be set up with a unique ID. Al the the same 802.15.4 network should use the same PAN ID. Figure of an 802.15.4 mesh network with a PAN ID of 1 nodes in shows an example @ PAN Coordinator @ Full Function Device Reduced Function Device PANID? Figure 2-2.7, 802.15.4 Sample Mesh Network Topology As mentioned earlier in this chapter, full-funetion devices (FFDs) and reduced-funetion devices (RFDs) are defined in IEEE 802.154. A minimum of one FFD acting as a PAN coordinator is required to deliver services that allow other devices to associate and form cell or PAN. Notice in Figure 4-7 that a single PAN coordinator is identified for PAN ID 1. FFD devices can communicate with any other devices. wh 1s RFD deviees can communicate only with FFD deviees. The IEBE 802.154 specification does not define a path seleetion within the MAC layer \d is known as mesh-under. Generally, this is based on a proprietary solution. Alternatively, the routing funetion ean oceur at Layer 3, using a routi for a mesh topology. This function ean be done at Layer protocol, such as the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL). This is referred to as mesh-over Security The IEEE 802.15.4 specification uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a 128-bit key length as the base eneryption algorithm for seeurin the US National Institute of Standards and Te 2 its data, Established by hnology in 2001, AESis a block cipherwhich means it operates on fixed-size blocks of data. The use of AES by the US ment and its widespre -ad adoption in the private sector has helped it become one of the most popular algorithms used in symmettic key cryptography. (A symmetric key means that the same Key is used for both the eneryption and decryption of the data.) In addition to enerypti the data, AES in 802.15.4 also validates the data that is se This is accomplished by a message integrity code (MIC), which is calculated for the e1 the same AES key that is frame usi sed for eneryption Enabling these security features for 802.15.4 changes the frame format slightly and consumes some of the payload. Using the Security Enabled f portion of the 802.15.4 header is the first step to enabling AES eneryption, This field is c bit that is set to 1 for security. Once this bit is set. a field called the Auxiliary Security Header is created after the Souree Address field, by stealing some bytes from the Payload field, Figure 4-8 shows the IEEE 802.15.4 frame format at a high level, with the Security Enabled bit se! id the Auxiliary Si surity Header field present. 4-20 Bytes ———— 28 18 0-148 Variable 28 <—> <> BE <_< s pestnaton] Source ‘Avery Frame |seqence pay [Destnatin] pay” | Souce | A2 ecuriy | Frame Payload Control | Number identi | A445 Hidentiner | AS | Header @ Auxiliary Security Header fleld is added to MAC frame. @ security Enabled bit in Frame Control is set to 1 Figure 2-2.8 Frame Format with the Auxiliary Security Header Field for 802.15.4- 2006and Later Versions Competitive Technologies As detailed in Table 2-2.2, the IEEE 802,15.4 PHY and MAC layers are the foundations forseveral ni working profiles that compete against each other in various IoT access envi-ronments, These various vendors and or anizations build ipper-layer protocol stacks on top of an 802.15.4 core, They compete and distinguish themselves based on features andcapabilities in these upper layers. A. competitive radio technolo rent in its PHY and MAC layers is DASH7. DASHT was originally based on the ISO18000-7 standard and positioned for industrial communications, whereas IEEE 802.15.4 is more ay that is di ric, Commonly employed in active radio frequency identification (RFID) implementations, DASHT was used by U S militaryforces for many years, mainly for logistics purposes. Active RFID utilizes radio waves generated by a battery-powered tag on an object to enable continuous tracking The current DASH? technology offers low power consumption, a compact protocol stack, range up fo I mile, and AES eneryption, Frequencies of 433 MHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz have been defined, enabling data rates up to 166.667 kbps and a maximum, payload of 256 bytes, DASH? is promoted by the DASHT Alliance, which has evolved the protocol from its active RFID niche into a witeless sensor network technology that is aimed at the commer: cial market, For more information on DASH7, see the Dash? Alliance webpage, at www.dash7-allian IEEE 802.15.4 Conclusions The IEEE 802.15.4 wireless PHY and MAC layers are mature sp foundation for various industry standards and products (refer to fications that are the le 4-2). The PHY 's based on modulation layer offers a maximum speed of up to 250 kbps, but this var and frequency. The MAC layer for 802.15.4 is robust and hai ted and received over the PHY layer. Specifically, the MAC layer handles the association les how data is transmit and disassociation of devices to/from a PAN, reliable communications between devices, security, and the formation of various topologies, The topologies used in 802.15.4 i for the formation of mesh networks. From a security perspective, 802.154 utilizes AES eneryption to allow secure communications and also provide data integrity \de star, peer-to-peer. and cluster trees that allow The main competitor to IEEE 802.15.4 is DASH. another wireless technology that com- pares favorably. However, IBEE 802.15.4 has an edge in the marketplace throt different vendors and organizations that utilize its PHY and MAC layers. As 802.15.4 con tinues to evolve, you will likely see broader adoption of the IPV6 standard at the network all the layer. For [oT sensor deployments requiring low power, low data rate, and low complex- ity, the IEE '802.15.4 standard deserves strong consid IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e The IEEE 802.15.4e amendment of 802.15.4-2011 expands the MAC layer feature ted with 802.15.4. including MAC r unbounded latency, and multipath fading. In addition to making general enhancements to the MAC lay application domains, such as factory and process automation and smart grid. Smart grid cs ass0. ability set to remedy the disadvantag IEEE 802.15.4e also made improvements to better cope with certainIBEE 802.15.4g-2012 is also an amendment to the IEEE 802.15.4-2011 standard, and just like 802,15.4e-2012, it has been fully integrated into the core IEEE 802. 15.4-2015 specification. The focus of this specification is the smart grid or, more specifi utility network communication, 802.15.4g seeks to optimize lar yetworks for field area networks (FANS). New PHY defini ‘as some MAC modifications needed to support their impl applies to oT use eases such as the following: lly. smart ‘outdoor wireless mesh jons are introduced, as well nentation. This technology Distribution automation and industrial supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) environments for remote monitoring and control (SCADA is covered in 6, “Application Protocols for loT.”) more detail in Chapt =Publie lighting Environmental wireless sensors in smart cities, =Electri | vehicle charging stations Smart parking met =Mictogrids Standardization and Alliances Because 802.15 2012 and 802.15.4e-2012 are simply amendments to IEEE 802.15 4. the same IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4 standards body authors, maint \s, and integrates them into the next release of the specification, However, the additional capabilities 2012 and 802.15.4e-2012 led to additional difficulty in achieving the interoperability betwe and options provided by 802.15 n devices and mixed vendors that users requestedSUN Alliance was formed. (SUN stands for smart dustry To guarantee interoperability. the Wi-S utility networ! alliance that defines communication profiles for smart utility and related networks. These profiles are based on open standards, such as 802.15.4g-2012, 802.15.4e-2012, IPV6, 6LOWPAN, and UDP for the FAN profile, (For 1 formation on 6LoWPAN sce Chapter 5.) In addition, Wi-SUN offers a testing and certification program to further ) This organization is not a standards body but is instead an ensure interoperability The Wi-SUN Alliance performs the same function as the Wi-Fi Alliance and WiMAX Forum. Each of these organizations has an associated standards body as well as a UN, visit commercial name, as shown in Table 4-3. For more information on Wi-S www. wi-sun. org, Table 2-3 Industry Alliances for Some Common IEEE Standards Commercial Name/Trademark Industry Organization Standards Body Wi-Fi Alliance TEEE 802,11 Wireless LAN WiMAX Forum IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN Wi-SUN Alliance TEBE 802.15.4g Wireless SUN Physical Layer In IEEE 802.15.4g-2012, the original IEEE 802.15.4 maximum PSDU or payload size of 127 bytes was increased for the SUN PHY to 2047 bytes. This provides a better match for the greater packet sizes found in many upper-layer protocols. For example, the default IPv6 MTU is 1280 byte: sary at I IPV6 packets are transmitted over IEEE 802.15.4g MAC ‘was improved in IEEE 802.15.4g by evolving the CRC from 16 to 32 bits ayer 2 when Fragmentation is no longer nece ames. Also, the ertor prot The SUN PHY, as described in IEEE 802.15.4g-2012, supports multiple data rates in bands ranging from 169 MHz to 2.4 GHz. These bands are covered in the unlicensed ISM frequeney spectrum specified by various countries and regions, Within these bands, data must be modulated onto the frequeney using at least one of the following PHY mecha- nisms to be IEEE 802.15.4g compliant emulti-Rate t power effi \d multi-Regional Frequency Shift Keying (MR-FSK): Offers good transn y due to the constant envelope of the transmit signal emulti-Rat d multi-Regional Orthogonal Frequency Division multiplexing (AR-OFDA1); Provides higher data rates but may be too complex for low-cost and low-power devices ‘ature Phase-Shift Key characteristies of the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 O-QP sier to design ig (AIR-O- SK PHY, QPSK) making multi-mode systems more cost-effective and eare available. Enhanced data rates and a greater number of channels for channel hoppit depending on the frequency bands and modulation. For example, for the 902-928 MHz, ISM band that is used in the United States, MR-FSK provides 50, 150, or 200 kbps. MR-OFDM at this same frequency allows up to 800 kbps. Other frequencies provide their own settings. Therefore, products and solutions must refer to the proper IEEE 802.15.4 specification, frequency band, modulation, and data rate when providing details about their PHY imple- n. This is important because the availability of chipsets supporting new PHY nechanisms, such as MR-OFDM, may limit the implementation of enhanced data rates. ‘You should look to the Wi-SUN Alliance to mitigate these problems and provide some consisteney in terms of implementation, interoperability, and certifications, For example, the W y Bands spe describing the details for various regions and countries. menta ification SUN PHY working group publishes a Regional Frequi MAC Layer While the IEEE 802.15.4¢-2012 amendment is not applicable to the PHY layer. it is pertinent to the MAC layer. This amendment enhances the MAC layer through various functions, which may be selectively enabled based on variou standard, In fact, if interoperability is a implementations of the ‘must have,” then using profiles defined by orga- SUN is necessary. The following are some of the main enhancements = 802.15 4e-2012: nizations such as W to the MAC layer proposed by IE] = Time-Stotted Channel Hopping (TSCH): TSCH is an IEEE 802,154e-2012 MAC operation mode that works t 88 and channel diversity. Channel hopping, also known as frequeney hopping. utilizes different channels f sion at different times, TSCH divides time into fixed time periods, or “time slots. which offer guar jeed bandwidth and predictable latency. In a time slot, one packet and its acknowledgement can be transmitted, increasing network eapacity because multiple nodes ean communicate in the same time slot, using different chan A number of ti provide “guaranteed access.” The transmitter ng for switching betw: slot counter and a global channel hopping sequence list. as computed on each node slots are defined as a “slot frame,” which is regularly repeated to nd nd receiver agree on the channels the ti n channels through the combination of a global ti to determine the channel of each time slot. TSCH adds robustness in noisy environ ments and smoother coexistence with other wireless technologies, especially for industrial use cases, Information elements: Information elements (IEs) allow for the exchange of informa- tion at the MAC layer in an extensible manner, either as header IEs (standardized) and/or payload IEs (private). Specified in a tag, length, value (TLV) format, the IE field allows frames to carry additional metadata to support MAC layer services. UN 1.0 IEs to These serviees may include IEEE 802.159 key management, Wi- broadeast and unicast schedule timing information, and frequeney hopping synehro- nization information for the 6TiSCH architeoture. = Enhanced beacons (EBs): EBs extend the flexibility of IEEE 802.15.4 beacons to allow the construction of application-specifie beacon content, This is accomplished by including relevant [Es in EB frames, Some IEs that may be found in EBs include pet-work metrics. frequency hopping broadcast schedule, and PAN information version nhanced beacon requests (EBRs): Like enhanced beacons, an enhanced beacon request (EBRs) also leverages IEs. The IEs in EBRs allow the sender to selectively specify the request of information. Beacon respon: requested in the EBR. For example, a device ew devices to jo a limited to what was, n query for a PAN that is allowin 1 ora PAN that supports a certain set of MAC/PHY eapabi are th Enhanced Acknowledgement: The Enhanced Acknowledgement frame allows for the integration of a frame cou helps protect cer for the frame being acknowledged. This featui st certain attacks that occur when Acknowledgement frames are spoofed The 802 e 2-2.9 details this fr the 802.15.4 PHY in Figure with 802.15.4g support 2012 MAC amendment is quite often paired with the 802.15.4g-2012 PHY 1, Notice that the $02,15.4g-2012 PHY is similar to 5. The main difference between the two is the payload size up to 2047 bytes and 802 only 127 bytes. supporti ee EER = =a Frame |Sequence) Addressing Information Comeleeee| “car? | Seca Famerens | check load 802.15.4e MAC Start of Frame] i Preamble | oa rer | PHY Header PHY Service Data Unit (PSDU) <—___—_—_—_—— 0-2047 Bytes 802.15.4g PHY Figure 2- Format 9 IEEE 802.15.4g/e MAC FrameTopology Deployments of IEEE 802.15.4 by smart cities areas where 802, to be done in urban or rural areas, expandi the traflie of other nodes. Considering the use cases addressed by this technology powered nodes have been the primary targets of | 1012 are mostly based on a mesh topology. This is sause a mesh topology is typically the best choice for use eases in the industrial and 5.4g-2012 is applied. A mesh topology allows deployments the distance between nodes that ean relay mplementations. Support for battery powered nodes with a long lifecycle requires optimized Layer 2 forwarding or Layer 3 routing protocol implementations. This provides an extra level of complexity but is sessary in order to cope with sles ng battery-powered nodes, Security Both IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e inherit their security attributes from the IEEE 802.15.4-2006 specification. Therefore, encryption is provided by AES, with a 128-bit key. In addition to the Auxiliary Security Header field initially defined in 802.15.4-2006. plete the MAC layer nowledgement and a secure Enhanced Beacon field con ¢ 2-2.10 shows a high-level overview of the security associated with de MAC frame. ure 2-2.10 e value that is ealeulated based on the frame contents, (The MIC The full frame in F ts authenticated through the MIC at the end of frame, The MIC is a uniq) discussed in more d ure 2-2.10 is composed of the Auxiliary S ld denoted in ail earlier in this chapter.) The Security Header fi urity field and one or more Information Elements fields, Integration of the Information Elements fields allows for the adoption of additional security capabilities, such as the IEEE 802.15.9 Key Management Protocol (KMP) specification. KMP provides a means for establishing keys for robust datagram security, Without key management support, weak keys are often the result, leaving the security system open fo attack. Authenticated Encrypted ene EEE En EEE eEEnEEEEEnenE! 802.15 .4gle eaten Security Header Payload Mic |Es and Auxiliary Security Field Message Integrity i Code Figure 2-2.10 IEEE 80: Security 15.4g/e MAC Layer47