Detecting Offensive Language in Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese

using Word Unigrams, Char N-grams, Classical Machine

Learning, and Deep Learning Methods
Avigail Stekel, Avital Prives, Yaakov HaCohen-Kerner
Computer Science Department, Jerusalem College of Technology, Jerusalem 9116001, Israel

Abstract
In this paper, we, the JCT team, describe our submissions for the HASOC 2023 track. We
participated in task 4, which addresses the problem of hate speech and offensive language
identification in three languages: Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese. We developed different models
using five classical supervised machine learning methods: multinomial Naive Bayes )MNB(,
support vector classifier, random forest, logistic regression (LR), and multi-layer perceptron. Our
models were applied to word unigrams and/or character n-gram features. In addition, we applied
two versions of relevant deep learning models. Our best model for the Assamese language is an
MNB model with 5-gram features, which achieves a macro averaged F1-score of 0.6988. Our
best model for Bengali is an MNB model with 6-gram features, which achieves a macro averaged
F1-score of 0.66497. Our best submission for Bodo is a LR with all word unigrams in the training
set. This model obtained a macro averaged F1-score of 0.85074. It was ranked in the shared 2nd-
3rd place out of 20 teams. Our result is lower by only 0.00576 than the result of the team that was
ranked in the 1st place. Our GitHub repository link is avigailst/co2023 (github.com).

Keywords 1
Char n-grams, hate speech, offensive language, supervised machine learning, word unigrams

1. Introduction
"Offensive language" lacks a universally agreed-upon definition. In the study of Jay and Janschewitz
[1], offensive language is characterized as encompassing vulgar, pornographic, and hateful expressions.
Xu and Zhu [2] observed that the interpretation of offensive language is subjective, as individuals can
perceive the same content differently. Xu and Zhu adopted the Internet Content Rating Association's
(ICRA) description of offensive language, categorizing it as text containing profanity, sexually explicit
material, racism, graphic violence, or any content that might be deemed offensive based on social,
religious, cultural, or moral standards. Another widely accepted interpretation of offensive language is
any explicit or implicit form of attack or insult directed at an individual or group.
The prevalent use of offensive language constitutes a significant challenge within online communities
and among their users. Instances of offensive language proliferate rapidly across social networks like
Twitter, Facebook, and blog posts. This trend detrimentally impacts the credibility of these online
communities, hindering their expansion and causing user detachment.
Distinguishing between offensive language and hate speech in contrast to non-offensive language
and non-hate speech is a complex endeavor due to several factors. First, hate speech does not always rely
on offensive slurs, and offensive language does not consistently convey hatred. Second, there exists a
wide array of implicit and explicit methods to verbally target individuals or groups. Third, the brevity of

Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation, December 15-18, 2023, Goa, India
EMAIL: [email protected] (A. Stekel); [email protected] (A .Prives); [email protected] (Y. Kerner)
ORCID: 0000-0002-4834-1272
©️ 2023 Copyright for this paper by its authors.
Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)

CEUR
ceur-ws.org
Workshop ISSN 1613-0073
Proceedings
certain tweets adds to the challenge. Finally, the presence of incoherent tweets further complicates
matters.
A recent outcome arising from addressing this challenge has been the establishment of several
competitions focused on identifying various forms of offensive language across diverse languages,
including but not limited to English, German, Hindi, Tamil, Marathi, and Malayalam. Notable instances
of these contests include HASOC 2019 [3], HASOC 2020 [4], HASOC 2021, HASOC 2022, SemEval-
2019 [5], and SemEval-2020 [6]. Within these tournaments, leveraging natural language processing
(NLP) and machine learning (ML) models to detect offensive language has demonstrated its
effectiveness.
Particularly vulnerable user segments, such as the elderly, children, youth, women, and certain
minority groups, are exposed to various risks stemming from encountering offensive content. These risks
encompass emotions like fear, panic, and animosity directed at specific individuals or communities,
potentially resulting in adverse effects on their mental and physical well-being.
The rationale behind researching the detection of offensive language is quite evident. A clear need
exists for top-tier systems capable of identifying offensive language posts, curbing their dissemination,
and alerting appropriate authorities. The implementation of such systems stands to enhance the
safeguarding and security of individuals, particularly in contexts closely tied to their physical and mental
health.
The structure of the rest of the paper is as follows. Section 2 introduces the general background
concerning offensive language. Section 3 describes the HASOC 2023 Subtask 4. In Section 4, we present
the applied models and their experimental results. Section 5 summarizes, concludes, and suggests ideas
for future research.

2. Related Work
According to the United Nations (UN) definition [7], hate speech is "any type of communication in
speech, writing or behavior that attacks or uses derogatory or discriminatory language in reference to a
person or group on the basis of who they are, in other words, on the basis of their religion, ethnicity,
nationality, race, color, origin, gender or other identity factor." Some studies [8-9] characterized hate
speech as messages marked by hostility and aggression, often referred to as flames. In more recent studies
[10-12], there has been a shift toward using the term "cyberbullying" to describe these harmful online
behaviors. Nevertheless, within the Natural Language Processing (NLP) community, a range of terms is
employed to encompass the realm of hate speech, including discrimination, flaming, abusive language,
profanity, toxic discourse, or derogatory comments [13]. These various terms collectively encompass the
multifaceted nature of offensive and harmful speech in the digital sphere.
Most of the studies in the field of hate and offensive speech recognition have primarily centered on
widely spoken languages, such as English, while the challenges posed by less-represented languages,
including Assamese, Bodo, and Bengali, have garnered increased attention Notable studies have delved
into these challenges by examining the nuances of identifying hate speech and offensive content in these
languages. For instance, Ishmam et al. [14] introduced a ML-based model, as well as Gated Recurrent
Unit (GRU), based deep neural network model for classifying users' comments on Facebook pages in the
Bengali language. Baruah et al. [15] suggested multinomial naive Bayes (MNB) and support vector
machine (SVM) with various word embedding and n-gram models as classification algorithms to detect
an offensive language in Assamese text. These investigations serve as pioneering efforts in developing
culturally sensitive solutions for detecting hate and offensive speech across linguistically diverse
landscapes.
HaCohen-Kerner and his students have experience from previous workshops that dealt with offensive
language detection [16-19].
3. Task Description
The Hate Speech and Offensive Content Identification in English and Indo-Aryan Languages
(HASOC) 2023 track includes four tasks. We took part in Task 4, which aims to detect hate speech in the
Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese languages. It is a binary classification task. Each dataset (for the three
languages) consists of a list of sentences with their corresponding class: hate or offensive (HOF) or not
hate (NOT). Data is primarily collected from Twitter, Facebook, or YouTube comments. The macro
averaged F1-score is the result measure of this task.

The overview of the HASOC Sub-track at FIRE 2021 is described in [20]. Additional information
about Subtask 4 in Assamese, Bengali, and Bodo is described in [21]. The HASOC 2023 train and test
datasets for Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese are located at [22].

4. Applied Models and Their Experimental Results

We used the given training and test datasets (see the end of the previous section). Due to time
limitations, (We joined the competition late), we did not apply any preprocessing methods. We applied
five classical supervised ML methods: Multinomial Naive Bayes (MNB), Random Forest (RF), Support
Vector Classifier (SVC), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), and Logistic Regression (LR) using classical
features such as word unigrams and char n-gram features and features.
MNB is a statistical ML algorithm based on the Bayes theorem (Kim et al., 2006). MNB assumes that
the features (i.e., attributes) are conditionally independent given the target class, and ignores all
dependencies among features. MNB estimates the probabilities of each class and the probabilities of each
feature given the class and uses these probabilities to make predictions.
RF is an ensemble learning method for classification and regression [23]. Ensemble methods use
multiple learning algorithms to obtain improved predictive performance compared to what can be
obtained from any of the constituent learning algorithms. RF operates by constructing a multitude of
decision trees at training time and outputting classification for the case at hand. RF combines Breiman’s
“bagging” (Bootstrap aggregating) idea [24] and a random selection of features introduced by Ho [25] to
construct a forest of decision trees.
SVC is a variant of the support vector machine (SVM) ML method [26] implemented in SciKit-Learn.
SVC uses LibSVM [27], which is a fast implementation of the SVM method. SVM is a supervised ML
method that classifies vectors in a feature space into one of two sets, given training data. It operates by
constructing the optimal hyperplane dividing the two sets, either in the original feature space or in higher
dimensional kernel space.
MLP is a deep, artificial neural network [28]. This model is based on a network of computational
units, called perceptron, interconnected in a feed-forward way. The network is composed of layers of
perceptron where each one has directed connections to the neurons of the subsequent layer. Usually, these
units apply a sigmoid function, called the activation function, on the input they get and feed the next layer
with the output of the function. This model is very useful especially when the data is not linearly
separable.
LR [29-30] is a linear classification model. It is known also as maximum entropy regression (MaxEnt),
logit regression, and the log-linear classifier. In this model, the probabilities describing the possible
outcome of a single trial are modeled using a logistic function. Generally, a sigmoid function is used as
a predictive function. LR can be used both for binary classification and multi-class classification.
BERT [31] (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) is a transformer-based model
that was trained on a massive corpus of text data, allowing it to learn rich representations of the
relationships between words and their meaning. These representations can be fine-tuned for specific NLP
tasks, e.g., TC, by tokenizing the text and converting it to numerical representations using pre-trained
tokenizers. These representations are fed into the pre-trained BERT model to obtain contextualized
representations of the input text (Chi et al., 2019). These representations can be thought of as a fixed-
length vector, which is then passed through a fully connected neural network (NN) for classification. One
key advantage of using BERT for TC is that it can handle contextual information effectively.
 BanglaBERT [32] is a language model designed to understand and process the Bengali language, also
known as Bangla. It's part of the BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers)
family of models that have proven effective in various natural language processing tasks. The purpose of
BanglaBERT [33] is to facilitate various language-related tasks in Bengali, even in scenarios where
there's limited training data available (low-resource settings). By pre-training on a vast corpus of Bengali
text, BanglaBERT learns to represent the nuances of the language and can be fine-tuned for specific tasks
such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and more. This enables more effective natural language
understanding and processing for the Bengali language.
The system architecture we used is described in Figure 1. This figure shows the procedure we
performed on the input sentence and the use of the algorithm mentioned before.

The applied ML methods used the following tools and information sources:
● The Python 3.8 programming language [34].
● Sklearn – a Python library for ML methods [35].
● Numpy – a Python library that provides fast algebraic calculous processing [36].
● Pandas – a Python library for data analysis. It provides data structures for efficiently storing large
datasets and tools for working with them [37].
● Pytorch - open-source ML framework for building, training, and deploying neural network models.

In our experiments, we test dozens of TC models for each language. We applied the models on the
given training set. During the experiments, we checked what happens when we use all the existing words,
and also what happens when we take only common words that appear in at least two or three documents.
Tables 1-3 present the F-Measure results of our baseline models for Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese,
respectively. As mentioned above, we applied five different supervised ML methods: multinomial
Naive Bayes, support vector classifier, random forest, logistic regression, and multi-layer perceptron
using their default values. For these baseline models, we use only word unigrams that occur in at least 2
documents in the training set.
In our initial experiments, we randomly split each tournament train dataset into two sub-sets: train
sub-set (80% of the original train sub-set) and test sub-set (20% of the original train sub-set).
In the train sub-set: in the Assamese language, 27,570 words appear in three tweets or more, in the Bengali
language 1,648 words appear in three tweets or more, and in the Bodo language 1,066 words appear in
three tweets or more.
In Tables 1-3, we present the best baseline results in Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese respectively. The best
baseline result in each table is highlighted in bold font.
Table 1
Baseline F-Measure results for word unigrams in Bengali.

Number of
features MNB SVC RF LR MLP
500 0.545991 0.480316 0.380032 0.564075 0.556609
1000 0.580773 0.467054 0.380032 0.556989 0.558711
1500 0.599029 0.439857 0.380032 0.564893 0.548554

Table 2
Baseline F-Measure results for word unigrams in Bodo.

Number of features MNB SVC RF LR MLP

500 0.68221 0.64635 0.380081 0.670617 0.673706
1000 0.743217 0.74287 0.37469 0.775797 0.750886

Table 3
Baseline F-Measure results for word unigrams in Assamese.

Number of features MNB SVC RF LR MLP

500 0.512793 0.481618 0.37416 0.510662 0.547265
1000 0.591038 0.525424 0.37416 0.579291 0.587754
1500 0.605971 0.56497 0.37416 0.588314 0.602868
2000 0.632991 0.563373 0.37416 0.608565 0.616363
2500 0.656912 0.581495 0.37416 0.620213 0.622697

We ran the baseline models on different numbers of words, and reached the results described in the
above tables, some are better, and some are less. In the Bodo language, using LR with 1,000 word
unigrams2 we reached an F-Measure of 0.775795. In the other languages, the results were lower.
Later we applied character n-gram series for n values between 3 and 7. We also ran combinations of
different sizes of BOWs with different character n-gram series, which caused an increase in F1 for the
Assamese and Bengali languages and reached them, using a combination of BOW and character n-grams,
to F-Measure of 0.6988 and 0.66497, respectively.
We also applied two types of Bert models: all-language Bert, which is a general Bert model that is not
adapted to a specific language, and a Bengali Bert model, also called Bert2, which is a Bert model adapted
to the Bengali language. In the Assamese language, we reached a result of 0.66967 for running Bert and
MNB3, in the Bengali language we reached a result of 0.609 when we ran the Bert2 model, and in the
Bodo language, we reached a result of 0.73 when we ran Bert and MLP. We applied also MLP4, which
yielded a result of 0.7952 for the Bodo language and less good results for the other languages.
For each language, we submitted various models including the top three models according to their F-
Measure results. Our best F-Measure results in the competition were as follows: Assamese (F-Measure =
0.6988, 10th place) using MNB with all word and character 5-gram features, Bengali (F-Measure =
0.66497, 12th place) using MNB with all word and 6-grams, and Bodo (F-Measure = 0.85074, 2nd place).
Our best submission was the model we built for offensive language identification in Bodo using LR. This
2only words that appear in two or more documents in the training set.
3https://www.ic.unicamp.br/~rocha/teaching/2011s1/mc906/aulas/naive-bayes.pdf
4https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Francisco-

Escobar/publication/320692297_Geomatic_Approaches_for_Modeling_Land_Change_Scenarios_An_Introduction/links/5e0da50a92851c836
4ab9b63/Geomatic-Approaches-for-Modeling-Land-Change-Scenarios-An-Introduction.pdf#page=458
model was ranked in 2nd place out of 20 teams. Our result is lower by only 0.00576 than the result
(0.8565) of the team that was placed in the 1st place.

Table 4 describes the best F-score we got in the three languages. The best result for each language is
bold.

Table 4
Our best submitted models and their F-Measure results in Assamese, Bengali, and Bodo.

language method result

Assamese MNB using all character 5-gram features and all word unigrams in the training 0.6988
set
Assamese MNB using all character 5-gram features and only words that were in two or 0.6946
more documents
Assamese MNB using all character 4-gram features and all word unigrams in the training 0.6941
set
Assamese MNB using only character 5-gram features that were in two or more documents 0.69213
and all word unigrams in the training set
Bengali MNB using all character 6-gram features and all word unigrams in the training 0.66497
set
Bengali MNB using only character 6-gram features that were in two or more documents 0.66032
and only words that were in two or more documents
Bengali MNB using only character 5-gram features that were in two or more documents 0.65691
and only words that were in two or more documents
Bengali MNB using all character 5-gram features and all word unigrams in the training 0.65215
set
Bodo LR using all word unigrams in the training set 0.85074
Bodo LR using only words that were in two or more documents 0.84607
Bodo LR using all character 4-gram features and all word unigrams in the training 0.8399
set.
Bodo MNB using only character 4-gram features that were in two or more documents 0.83703
and only words that were in two or more documents

An interesting phenomenon is that in two languages (Assamese and Bengali), the MNB method was
found to be the best among five classical learning methods and two variants of BERT. In the third
language (Bodo), LR was found as the best ML method. However, in Bodo, a number of good models
using MNB were discovered. MNB is a popular classifier for many text classification tasks, due to its
simplicity, computational efficiency, relatively good predictive performance, and trivial scaling to large-scale
tasks [38]

5. Summary, Conclusions, and Future Work

In this paper, we, the JCT team, described our submitted models for subtask 4 of the HASOC 2021
competition, which addresses the problem of hate speech and offensive language identification in three
languages: Bengali, Bodo, and Assamese. We applied classical ML methods and deep learning methods:
MNB, SVC, MLP, RF, and LR. These ML methods were applied to various combinations of character n-
gram features )for n values from 1 to 7) and word unigrams.
Two interesting phenomena were discovered. First, while in Bodo the use of a classical learning
method like LR was enough for a high result and shared the 2nd-3rd place. Second, in the Assamese and
Bengali languages, the use of classical learning methods such as RF, LR, and SVC did not yield good
enough results, and precisely the naive MNB model produced the best results.
The HOF and NOT classes are unbalanced. In the Assamese language, the HOF group is about 16%
larger than the NOT group, while in the Bengali language, the NOT group is about 19.5% larger than the
HOF group, and in the Bodo language, the HOF group is 19% larger than the NOT group. In future
research, we can apply oversampling in order to balance the classes. Oversampling is a technique used in
machine learning to balance the class distribution by increasing the frequency of the minority class in the
training dataset.
Additional ideas for future research are: (1) parameter tuning, also known as hyperparameter tuning,
which is the process of finding the best combination of hyperparameters for a ML model to achieve
optimal performance on a specific task or dataset, (2) application of various preprocessing methods [39],
and (3) definition and application of style-based and content-based features and combinations of them
[40].

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