1 2 3 4 .... 1  1  1  1  1 .........  ?

1 2  3 4 ....
Discrete mathematics

The
Foundations:
 x    y  ( x  y )
Logic and

x( | x )

1
Proofs
 x 1  ?
x

 x 1 x ?

RIZOAN TOUFIQ
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Predicates and
Quantifiers

Section 1.4
 Section Summary

 Predicates
– Variables
 Quantifiers
– Universal Quantifier
– Existential Quantifier
– The Uniqueness Quantifier

 Quantifiers with Restricted Domains

 Precedence of Quantifiers
 Binding Variables
 Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers
 Section Summary

 Negating Quantifiers
– De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
 Translating English to Logic
 Using Quantifiers in System Specifications
 Examples from Lewis Carroll
 Logic Programming (optional)
 Propositional Logic Not Enough

 If we have:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
 Does it follow that “Socrates is mortal?”
 Can’t be represented in propositional logic.
 Need a language that talks about objects, their
properties, and their relations.
 Later we’ll see how to draw inferences.
 Introducing Predicate Logic

 Predicate logic uses the following new features:

– Variables: x, y, z
– Predicates: P(x), M(x)
– Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides):
 Propositional functions are a generalization of
propositions.
– They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x)
– Variables can be replaced by elements from their domain.
 Propositional Functions

 Propositional functions become propositions (and have truth values) when

their variables are each replaced by a value from the domain (or bound by
a quantifier, as we will see later).

A proposition, → “x is greater than 3”

x → variable
is greater than 3 → predicate (P)
P(x)→ “x is greater than 3”

The statement P(x) is also said to be the value of the propositional

function P at x.
 Examples

 Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all three variables) be the

integers. Find these truth values:
R(2,-1,5) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: F
R(3,4,7) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: T
R(x, 3, z) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: Not a Proposition
 Now let “x - y = z” be denoted by Q(x, y, z), with U as the integers. Find these
truth values:
Q(2,-1,3) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: T
Q(3,4,7) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: F
Q(x, 3, z) → T/F/Not a proposition?
Solution: Not a Proposition
 Compound Expressions

 Connectives from propositional logic carry over to predicate

logic.
 If P(x) denotes “x > 0,” find these truth values:
P(3) ∨ P(-1) Solution: T
P(3) ∧ P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → ¬P(-1) Solution: T
 Expressions with variables are not propositions and therefore
do not have truth values. For example,
P(3) ∧ P(y)
P(x) → P(y)
 When used with quantifiers (to be introduced next), these
expressions (propositional functions) become propositions.
 Preconditions and
postconditions
 Predicates are also used to establish the correctness of computer
programs.
 The statements that describe valid input are known as
preconditions
 The conditions that the output should satisfy when the program
has run are known as postconditions

Consider the following program, designed to interchange the values of two

variables x and y.
temp := x
x:=y
y := temp
Find predicates that we can use as the precondition and the postcondition to
verify the correctness of this program. Then explain how to use them to
verify that for all valid input the program does what is intended.
 Preconditions and
postconditions
Precondition → P(x,y) predicate → “x = a and y = b,”
Postcondition → Q(x,y) predicate → “x = b and y = a,”

verify Suppose that the precondition P(x,y) holds. “x = a and

y = b” is true.
First step:
temp:=x
Holds x = a, temp = a, and y = b
Second Step:
x:=y
Holds x = b, temp = a, and y = b
Third Step:
y:=temp
Holds x = b, temp = a, and y = a
The postcondition Q(x, y) holds, that is, the statement
“x = b and y = a” is true.
 Charles
Quantifiers Peirce
(1839-1914)

All
 “All men are Mortal.”
Quantifier represent for  “Some cats do not have fur.”

Some

The two most important quantifiers are:

Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol: 

Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol: 

We write as in x P(x) and x P(x).

x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for every x in the domain.
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for some x in the domain.
 Universal Quantifier

– x P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every x, P(x)”

Examples:
If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x) = ?
Solution: false.

If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the positive integers, then x P(x) =?

Solution: true.

If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then x P(x) = ?

Solution: false.
 Existential Quantifier

x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There is an x such that P(x),” or

“For at least one x, P(x).”

Examples:
If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x) = ?

Solution: true.

If P(x) denotes “x < 0” and U is the positive integers, then x P(x) =?

Solution: false.

If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then x P(x) = ?

Solution: true.
 Uniqueness Quantifier

 !x P(x) means that P(x) is true for one and only one x in the universe of
discourse.
 This is commonly expressed in English in the following equivalent ways:
– “There is a unique x such that P(x).”
– “There is one and only one x such that P(x)”
 Examples:
– If P(x) denotes “x + 1 = 0” and U is the integers, then !x P(x) =?
Solution: true.
– But if P(x) denotes “x > 0,” then !x P(x) =?
Solution: false.
 Quantifiers with Restricted
Domains
 Used to restrict the domain of a quantifier.
 Examples:
– ∀x< 0 (x2 > 0), x is the real numbers?

Domain
 Quantifiers with Restricted
Domains

“The square of a negative real number is positive.”

→Equivalent Statement: ∀x(x < 0 → x2 > 0)

“The cube of every nonzero real number is nonzero.”

→Equivalent Statement : ∀y(y ≠0 → y3≠ 0).

“There is a positive square root of 2.”

→Equivalent Statement : ∃z(z > 0 ∧ z2 = 2)
 Precedence of Quantifiers

The quantifiers ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence than

all logical operators from propositional calculus.
 Binding Variables

→When a quantifier is used on the variable x, we say that this occurrence

of the variable is bound.
→An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or set equal
to a particular value is said to be free.

∃x(x + y = 1)

•The variable x is bound by the existential quantification ∃x,

•The variable y is free
 Thinking about Quantifiers

 When the domain of discourse is finite, we can think of quantification as

looping through the elements of the domain.
 To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.
– If at every step P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true.
– If at a step P(x) is false, then x P(x) is false and the loop terminates.
 To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.
– If at some step, P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true and the loop
terminates.
– If the loop ends without finding an x for which P(x) is true, then x P(x)
is false.
 Even if the domains are infinite, we can still think of the quantifiers this
fashion, but the loops will not terminate in some cases.
 Translating from English to
Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into predicate logic: “Every
student in this class has taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a propositional function
J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in Java” and translate as x J(x).
Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a propositional function S(x)
denoting “x is a student in this class” and translate as x (S(x)→ J(x)).

x (S(x) ∧ J(x)) is not correct.

What does it mean?
 Translating from English to
Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence into predicate logic: “Some
student in this class has taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, translate as
x J(x)
Solution 2: But if U is all people, then translate as x (S(x) ∧ J(x))

x (S(x)→ J(x)) is not correct.

What does it mean?
 Equivalences in Predicate Logic

 Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are

logically equivalent if and only if they have the same
truth value
– for every predicate substituted into these statements and
– for every domain of discourse used for the variables in the
expressions.
 The notation S ≡T indicates that S and T are logically
equivalent.
 Example: ∀x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ≡∀xP(x) ∧∀xQ(x).
 Thinking about Quantifiers as
Conjunctions and Disjunctions

 If U consists of the integers 1,2, and 3:

 Negating Quantified
Expressions
 Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.”
–J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java”
–The domain is students in your class.

 Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case that every
student in your class has taken Java.” This implies that “There is a
student in your class who has not taken Java.”

 The negation of x J(x) is x ¬J(x)

Symbolically ¬x J(x) ≡ x ¬J(x)
 De Morgan’s Laws for
Quantifiers
 The reasoning in the table shows that:

 These are important. You will use these.

 Translation from English to
Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and S(x) denote
“x is a student in this class,” and U be all people.
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or
Mexico.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Canada.”
x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))
 System Specification Example
 Predicate logic is used for specifying properties that systems
must satisfy.
 For example, translate into predicate logic:
– “Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be
compressed.”
– “If a user is active, at least one network link will be
available.”
 Decide on predicates and domains (left implicit here) for the
variables:
– Let L(m, y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes.”
– Let C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.”
– Let A(u) represent “User u is active.”
– Let S(n, x) represent “Network link n is state x.
 Now we have:
 Lewis Carroll Example

 The first two are called premises and the third is called the conclusion.
1. “All lions are fierce.”
2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.”
3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the propositional functions “x is a lion,” “x is
fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,” respectively. Assuming that the domain
consists of all creatures, express the statements in the argument using
quantifiers and P(x), Q(x), and R(x).

Solution:
 x (P(x)→ Q(x))
 x (P(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
 x (Q(x) ∧ ¬R(x)) WHY?

∃x(P(x) →¬R(x))
∃x(Q(x) →¬R(x)).
 Logic Programming (optional)

 Prolog (from Programming in Logic) is a programming language

developed in the 1970s by researchers in artificial intelligence (AI).
 Prolog programs include Prolog facts and Prolog rules.
 As an example of a set of Prolog facts consider the following:
instructor(chan, math273).
instructor(patel, ee222).
instructor(grossman, cs301).
enrolled(kevin, math273).
enrolled(juana, ee222).
enrolled(juana, cs301).
enrolled(kiko, math273).
enrolled(kiko, cs301).

 Here the predicates

– instructor(p,c) represents “professor p is the instructor of course c.”
– enrolled(s,c) represents “student s is enrolled in course c.”
 Logic Programming (cont)

 In Prolog, names beginning with an uppercase letter are variables.

 If we have apredicate teaches(p,s) representing “professor p teaches
student s,” we can write the rule:
teaches(P,S) :- instructor(P,C), enrolled(S,C).
 This Prolog rule can be viewed as equivalent to the following
statement in logic (using our conventions for logical statements).
p c s(I(p,c) ∧ E(s,c)) → T(p,s))
 Logic Programming (cont)

 Prolog programs are loaded into a Prolog interpreter. The interpreter

receives queries and returns answers using the Prolog program.
 For example, using our program, the following query may be given:
?enrolled(kevin,math273).
 Prolog produces the response:
yes
 Note that the ? is the prompt given by the Prolog interpreter indicating
that it is ready to receive a query.
 Logic Programming (cont)

 The query:
?enrolled(X,math273).
produces the response:
•The Prolog interpreter tries to find an
X = kevin; instantiation for X. It does so and returns X
X = kiko; = kevin.
no •Then the user types the ; indicating a
request for another answer.
 The query: • When Prolog is unable to find another
?teaches(X,juana). answer it returns no.
produces the response:
X = patel;
X = grossman;
no
 Logic Programming (cont)

 The query:
?teaches(chan,X).
produces the response:
X = kevin;
X = kiko;
no

 A number of very good Prolog texts are available. Learn Prolog Now! is
one such text with a free online version at
http://www.learnprolognow.org/
 There is much more to Prolog and to the entire field of logic
programming.
 Query???

1 2 3 4 ....
 x    y  ( x  y )  ?

  1
 x 1 x ?
 x 1  ?
x

 x( | x )  ?  x    y  ( x  y )  ?

 1
1 2 3 4 .... ?
 x 1  ?
1  1  1  1  1 .........  ? x