CH 11

FABRIC CONSTRUCTION

To weave or knit a fabric it is necssary to have fibres in a long continous length. A yarn is that continous strand of fibres which
is suitable for knitting, weaving or intertwinning in some other way to form a fabric.
Conversion of fibres into yarns is called as yarn processing .
The process by which a long & strong thread is drawn from the cluster of fibres by twisting it continously is called as spinning.
Twisting holds the fibres together & makes the yarn durable & continous.
Twist is of 2 types : S twist ( anti-clockwise direction )
Z twist ( clockwise )

Twist is the measure of spiral turns given to a yarn to hold the fibres together. It is measured in Tpi (twist per inch).
Direction of twist does not change the properties of yarn but the amount ot twist given does affect the properties of the yarn
& the fabric.
 As Tpi increases the yarn’s fineness & evenness also increases . Fabrics made from such yarns are fine , smooth &stiff.
Low twist yarns make lustrous & soft fabrics.
 Absorbency of yarns decreases with increase in tpi.
 Higher the twist stronger is the yarn. However beyond an optimum point added twist will cause the yarns to kink &
eventually the yarn will become brittle & lose strength.
 Increased twist will add elasticity to yarns & makes them more resistant to abrasion.
 Yarns with low twist are soft & fluffy. They tend to be warmer
STAGES OF YARN PROCESSING
1) Cleaning : natural fibres in their raw form have extraneous impurities like seeds, leafy material, twigs etc. these
impurities are first removed & the fibres are converted into rolled sheets of loose fibres.
2) Carding & combing : straightening process . the equipment is very similar to hair brush with fine nails or wires to
remove knots or tangles from the fibres , lay them straight & lie parallel to each other.
In case of finer fabrics, the carded laps are subjected to combing which further removes finer impurities as well as
short fibres. These are then passed through a funnel shaped device which converts it into a sliver . A sliver is a rope
like strand of loose fibres which are about 2-4 cm in diameter.
3) Drawing out : several slivers are combined & conveyed to the drawing machine where they are pulled together &
drawn out into a new sliver no larger than one of the original single sliver
4) Roving: the sliver from the drawing machine is taken to the roving machine, where it is attenuated until it measures
from ¼ to 1/8 of its original diameter. A slight twist is imparted to the strand to keep the fibres together.

5)Spinning : the final process in the manufacture of yarn is the spinning process. It is defined as twisting together of
drawn out strands of fibers to form yarn .
The yarn is stretched to its ultimate diameter & the desired amount of twist is inserted. The yarn as it comes out
from the spinning machine is a single yarn & is then wound on to cones.
Spinning by machines
 Takli

Spinning by hand is done using a TAKLI or CHARKHA

Spinning is of 2 types a) Mechanical spinning ( natural fibres)
b) Chemical spinning ( man made fibres)
staple fibres form spun yarns
 CHEMICAL SPINNING

DISSOLVING MELTING

WET SPINNING DRY SPINNING MELT SPINNING

POLYMERCHIPS DISSOLVED IN CHEMICAL POLYMERCHIPS HEATED/MELTED
/SOLVENT

PASSED THROUGH SPINNERET ( many shapes & sizes)

WATER BATH HOT AIR COLD AIR

COAGULATION EVAPORATION COOLING

( PRECIPITATE and SOLIDIFY) (SOLVENT EVAPORATES)

SOLID FIBRES
YARN TERMINOLOGY

yarn number : is a measure of diameter ( fineness or thickness) of the yarn. It is also called as yarn count & is a relationship
between the weight of raw fibre & the length of fibre drawn from it. Ex if 1000 meter yarn is drawn from one pound of
cotton it’s yarn number is 1. Higher the yarn number finer is the yarn.
yarn twist: is indicated as TPI (twist per inch). Appearance, quality & performance of a fabric depends on its tpi. Hard twist
yarns are used to make fabrics with stiff surface like denim & low twist yarns are used to make smooth, lustrous & soft
fabrics.
Yarn & thread : yarn is a continous length of fibres twisted together & is used for weaving or knitting into a textile fabric.
Thread is a tightly twisted strand of 2 or more yarns & is used to sew or join pieces of fabrics together.

FABRIC PRODUCTION
There are three types of fabric manufacturing process. They are weaving, knitting and non-weaving.

Weaving is one of the most common ways of making a two-dimensional woven fabric. It is done on handlooms &
powerlooms. Two sets of yarns are interlaced at right angles to each other during the process of weaving: the yarn that is
horizontal is called the weft yarn, and the yarn that goes vertically is known as the warp yarn ( filling yarn).

 Weaving is one of the most common ways of making a fabric

 Woven fabric has weft yarns and warp yarns
 A selvedge is the finished edges of the fabric, parallel to the grainline. It is made up of heavier & closely packed warp yarns
 The grain line follows the warp yarns
 The bias is diagonal across the grain, where the fabric will stretch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OHbJQ90hfY&ab_channel=VictoriaandAlbertMuseum
The weaving operation consists of
 Shedding- The process of separating the warp yarn into two layers by raising the harness to form an open area between
two sets of warps and is known as shed.
 Picking- The process of inserting the filling yarn through the shed by the means of the shuttle while the shed is opening.

 Beating- The process of pushing the filling yarn into the already woven fabric to a compact weave with the help of reed.

--Weaving gives a firm fabric.

– Woven fabrics do not stretch and are thus easy to handle.
– Woven fabrics are easy to print and embroider.
– Weaving is most commonly used method of fabric construction.
 Selvedge
finished edge of
a fabric (2 bound
sides of fabric)
grain – direction of the yarn is referred to as grain
warn yarn run along the grain/
selvedge ( lengthwise )
weft / filling yarn run along the width
of fabric . ( widthwise ) – across the
selvedge
True bias – 45 degree angle – most stretchable ( used
for necklines),
TYPES OF WEAVES
Plain weave – alternate interlacing of 1
warp and 1 weft at 90 degree
 variations of plain weave – rib and
basket weaves
1 weft
 Rib- alternate
 Basket weave- alternate
interlacing of
interlacing of 2 warp and 1 weft
1 warp and 2
at 90 degree ( shrinks )
weft
angle or 2 
warp and
 Twill weave –– 1 Weft over 2 warp
diagonally graduating pattern-
progression of one at 15 to 45 degree angle
. e.g jeans strongest , difficult to clean
satin and sateen
 satin-- warp float over
several weft (vertical floats)
 satin – more
shiny ,
stronger than
sateen
but weaker
than
other weaves

 sateen –
weft float
over several
warp ((
horizontal
floats )
Pile weave

Used in towels, rugs

WEAVES APPEARANCE DURABILITY MAINTENANCE
Plain  Flat  durable ,  Cheap
 reversible  does not shrink  easy to was
 easily dyes

Rib Ribbed effect more durable than plain resistant to wear a

Basket loosely constructed flexible tends to shrink.

Twill Diagonal lines on surface Strongest weave Stain and wrinkl

Difficult to clean

Satin Vertical floats ,shiny Smooth , soft Tends to snag Needs care

Sateen horizontal floats ,shiny Tends to snag Needs care.

Smooth , soft

Pile Strong Durable Tends to snag if lo

caught

KNITTING
Knitting is a process of fabric forming by the interlooping of yarns.
When one loop is drawn through another, loops are formed in
horizontal or vertical direction.

Course :The series of loops those are connected horizontally,

continuously are called as course.
The horizontal row of loops that are made by adjacent needles in
the same knitting cycle.
Wales : The series of loops that intermeshes vertically are known
as Wales.
Vertical column of loops that are made from same needle in
successive knitting cycle

Gauge : is Number of loops per inch of the fabric . Determines the

fineness of the fabric. Depends on the thickness of the yarn & the
size of the needles.

.
When the thread of a knitted fabric breaks , the loop starts slipping
row by row . this is known as laddering effect.

hand knitting
 circular knitting machine

Characteristics of knitted fabrics :

 Knitted fabric possesses high degree of elasticity & recovery. It
can be stretched to a considerable length & yet will come back
to its original shape & size.
 The knitted structure is porous & air permeable. It allows the
skin to breathe freely.
 Knitted fabrics are light weight, comfortable to wear & do not
wrinkle easily.

Two types of knitted fabrics are produced :

Warp knits : each loop in the horizontal direction is made from a
different thread. Ex sweaters
Weft knits : horizontal row of loops is made using one thread & the
thread runs in the horizontal direction. Ex knitted fabrics.
 WEAVING KNITTING
No. Of yarns 2 sets of yarns interlaced at 1 set of yarn
right angles interloped with
itself
Made on Looms – handloom & Knitting needles/
powerlooms knitting machines
Fabric Firm, smooth, Limp, stretchable,
dimensionally stable, dimensionally
prone to creases unstable, wrinkle
resistant
Care Need proper washing & No ironing required.
ironing before use While drying lay flat
on the ground
Used for Apparels, upholstery, bed Undergarments,
linen, curtains, aprons, hosiery, sweaters,
dusters etc. T-shirts etc.

Braiding
 Made by plaiting three or more yarns that originate from a
single location & lie parallel before the interlacing occurs.
 Braiding of yarn creates a strand / rope that is thicker &
stronger.
 Braids can be seen in items such as shoe laces, ropes, insulation
for wires & trimmings.
 Narrow braids can be joined together to form rugs, hats,
handbags, belts, carpets etc

Nets
 Nets are open mesh fabrics with large geometric interstices
between the yarns.
 The yarns are fused, looped or knotted at their intersections by
hand or machines resulting in a fabric with open spaces
 Requires gentle care & handling
 Nets are used for evening apparel, veils, curtains, window
screens, fishing nets, sports equipments & hammocks.
 Laces
 Lace is an open work fabric consisting of a network of threads
or yarns formed into intricate designs.
 It is a product of a combination of procedures including yarn
twisting, interlooping & knotting.
 Lace is treasured for its decorative appearance
 Used for apparel, trimmings & home furnishings
(curtains,tablecloths, dollies etc)
NON WOVEN FABRIC (felts & bonded fabric)
Nonwoven fabric wherein fibres are directly formed into fabric
. The term is used to denote fabrics, which are neither woven nor knitted.
[

Felting : Felting is a processing technique for wool which yields a non-woven

fabric of unusual sturdiness
Felts are produced by application of heat, moisture, and
mechanical action, causing the interlocking, or matting, of
fibres .
Wool has the ability to coil, interlock & shrink when it is
subjected to moist heat coupled with friction because of its
peculiar structure and high degree of crimp (waviness).
The edges require no finish & cut into any shape. They are
good insulators & are suited for floor coverings ( namdas),
blankets , jackets & for industrial uses.
 NAMDA
Felt fabrics
 Show good to excellent resilience
 Has little or no elasticity
 Are good shock absorbers
 Are easy to shape
 Will not ravel, so edges need no finish
 Are sound absorbent
 Have good insulating properties with resultant warmth
 Have both industrial & domestic applications. Used for apparel
& home furnishings.
Bonding
Bonded fabrics are made primarily of textile fibres held together by
a) An adhesive or bonding agent which is fused into the web
of textile fibres by application of dry heat.
b) Thermoplastic fibres are uniformly blended in the fiber
web. Heat is applied &the thermoplastic fibres soften &
fuse over & around the other fibres. As the web cools, the
fibres are all held firmly together resulting in the
formation of a fabric.
These fabrics are found in diapers, bandages, apparel interfacings,
industrial apparel, upholestry backing, window shades etc.
FABRIC FINISHES
The fabric that comes out of the loom is rough to feel & dirty
with stains & is known as ‘greige cloth’ (spelled as grey).
A finish is something that is done to a fabric after
manufacturing to enhance its appearance & performance.
Importance of finish
 To enhance the appearance of the fabric.
 To enhance the utility of the fabric ( fireman fabrics –fire
proofing finish / raincoats – water proofing finish )
 To bring variety
 To impart durability ex weighting of silk, moth & mildew
proof finish
 To produce imitation fabrics. Mercerization of cotton
gives them an appeance of silk
Types of finishes
1) Basic finish : these finishes are essential for all fabric types
eg bleaching, sizing, calendering, tentering etc
2) Special finish: these finishes are applied to enhance the
utility of fabric for special purposes eg mercerization,
sanforising, water proofing, dyeing , printing etc

Finishes
Basic finishes
1) Cleaning: cleaning is done to remove dirt, natural waxes,
processed oils and sizing compounds. Complete removal of these
impurities is essential.
For cotton fabrics sodium carbonate or caustic soda is used and the
process is called scouring.
For silk, mild alkali is used for cleaning and the process is called
degumming.
For wool mild ammonia/ sulphuric acid is used for cleaning and
removing foreign matter and the process is called carbonizing
2) Bleaching: bleaching is done to remove all natural colours from
the greige fabrics to obtain a uniform colour during dying process.
Fabrics made with natural fibres are bleached with oxidative
bleaches.
Hydrogen peroxide or perborate bleaches are used for silk and
wool.
Cotton can be bleached with chlorine.
Manmade fibres are bleached with sodium hydrosulphite bleach.
Bleaching enhances the quality, absorbency & lusture of the fabric.
Chemicals used in bleaching also disinfect the fabrics.
3)Sizing : provides stiffness to the fabric & helps to maintain its
shape. It gives body to the fabric, adds lusture & also help to subdue
weaving defects. For cellulosic fibres starch is used.

Weighting: after complete degumming (removing gum from silk) the

silk becomes lifeless and limp. To make it stiff and give body,
metallic salts are added to it and the fabric is called weighted silk.
Too much of stiffness can make the silk crack. Weighted silk tend to
get damaged by sunlight, perspiration and deodorants

4) Tentering: this is done several times in between various finishes.

It is done to bring back the fabric to its normal width. And also so
that the warp and weft remain at 90 degree angle and do not
become off grain.
The tenter frame consists of two parallel chains on both sides , the
width of which can be adjusted. The selvedge of the fabric is held
between these chains with help of clips or pins. Gradually the chains
are spread apart to the desired width. After this, the fabric is passed
over steam coils and through hot air chamber and is dried in this state.
SPECIAL FINISHES
Mercerisation: this finish is specially done on cotton and cotton
blends to provide lusture.
In this process, first the fabric is made wet and then
saturated with an 10% solution of sodium hydroxide(alkali) and left
in this state to cool.
Then the fabric is fed onto the tenter chain and stretched.
After that the fabric is rinsed in a neutralising bath and then dried.
Mercerisation swells the fibre and gives them round cross section
that reflects light and gives shine to the fabric , increases its
strength, shrinkage resistance, and affinity for dyes..

Sanforising It is done to prevent dimensional change in either length or width

of fabric.
It is a guarantee mark that means fabric will not shrink further.
in this fabric is opened full width, dampened and fed between a
roller and a rubber blanket and then fed over a heated drum, where
the stretched surface is compressed and dried.

Water proofing : it is a chemical finish which does not allow the

water to enter the fabric. Used for raincoats etc. A coating of rubber,
synthetic resins, oil etc are applied on the fabric which fills up the
spaces & water slips over it. Such fabrics donot breathe & are not
comfortable to wear.
To remove this drawback water repellant finishes which are
emulsions of aluminium soaps are applied . in such fabrics circulation
of air is possible but water cannot enter except under high pressure.

Moth proofing: is a chemical finish given to fabrics to prevent them

from the growth of moths
Flame retardant or fire proof : chemical finish given to the fabric to
make it heat & flame resistant.

Special finishes to enhance appearance & aesthetic appeal

Dyeing :
Dyeing is a method of application of solid color to the fabric. The color
& the design is produced on both sides of the fabric. Color is a major
factor which influences the selection of fabric. A dye is a substance
which can be fixed on the surface of the fabric in more or less
permanent state.
Dyeing can be done at
a) Fibre stage- dyeing of fibres is done to obtain yarns of
different colors
b) Yarn stage – dyeing of yarns is done to obtain woven
patterns (ikat fabrics), checks or stripes.
c) Fabric stage – dyeing of fabric is generally done to
obtain specific design or effect.

Types of dyes

Natural Synthetic
Vegetable dyes acidic dyes ( protein fibres
Nylon & polyester)
Animal dyes basic dyes (nylon/ polyester)
Mineral dyes direct dyes (cellulosic)
Disperse dyes (nylon/poyester)
Azoic dyes ( cellulosic & used for
Batik)
Reactive dyes
 Sulphur dyes
Vat dyes

The most common method for application of color through dyeing

are
a) Tie & Dye
b) Batik
Both are Resist mehod of dyeing ie some obstruction is
provided for penetration of the dye into the fabric thereby
producing variegated designs.
In tie dye selected areas of fabric are tied as a result of which
the color does not go through that particular portion.

In batik the obstruction to dye is provided with wax. Wax is

applied on selected areas of fabric & when dyed the color does not
penetrate the waxed area resulting in a patterned design.

Printing:
Printing is the process of imparting color to the fabric in definite
patterns or designs. It produces design only on one side of the fabric.
In printing same colors are used as in dyeing. But the color is in the
form of a paste in printing & is in the form of a solution for dyeing.
Dyeing gives a solid color to the fabric whereas printing is an
application of dye paste at specified areas to create a design.
Special tools like wooden blocks, stencil, screens, engraved rollers
are used to transfer color on to the fabric.
Printing can be done by hand using blocks , stencils or screens.
At industrial level it is done by using engraved rollers which is both
cost effective & saves time.

Block printingis done with the help of wooden blocks. The design is
engraved on the block. Separate blocks are used for different colors.

Screen printing:
screen is made of nylon mesh fabric fastensd on a wooden frame.
Except for the design a resistant solution is applied on the screen to
avoid the transfer of the color to the fabric. The screen is placed on
the stretched fabric & color applied on it with the help of sueeze,
thus transferring the design onto the fabric.
Roller printing
Roller printing is done commercially & is similar to block printing. It is
cost effective, saves time & labour.
The design is engraved on copper rollers. For each color in the design
different roller is used. The cloth is passed around the roller & the
design is transferred to the fabric. It is then passed through drying &
steaming chamber to fix the color.
Both dyeing & printing improves the appearance, texture & utility of
the fabric. It also provides variety & increases the cost of the fabric.

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