UNDERSTANDING GENERALIST PRACTICE

Karen K. Kirst-Ashman and Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

This study note is intended exclusively for the BSW180 class. The contents are derived from the book by
Kirst-Ashman and Hull Jr.

Social Work Is Unique

The purpose of social work is “to (1) enhance the problem solving and coping capacities of people, (2)
link people with systems that provide them with resources, services, and opportunities, (3) promote the
effective and humane operation of these systems, and (4) contribute to the development and
improvement of social policy” (Pincus & Minahan, 1973, p. 8). In other words, the purpose of social work
is to help people in need by using any ethical means possible. However, specifying a cookbook recipe for
social work practice is impossible due to the variety of problems encountered and the methods
employed. Flexibility and creativity are key qualities for generalist social work practitioners.

Other fields also perform some of the same functions as social

work. For instance, mental health clinicians in psychology,
psychiatry, and counseling use interviewing skills. Some use a
planned change approach. Figure on the right illustrates how
social work overlaps to some extent with other helping
professions. All, for example, have a common core of interviewing
and counseling skills.

However, social work is much more than having a clinician sit

down in his or her office with an individual, group, or family and
focus on solving mental health problems. (We don’t want to
imply that this is all that other helping professions do. Their own
unique thrusts and emphases are beyond the scope of what can
be included here.) Social work has at least six major aspects that
make it unique.

1.) Focus on Any Problem

The first unique aspect of social work involves how practitioners may focus attention on any problem or
cluster of problems, even those that are very complex and difficult. Social workers do not refuse to work
with clients or refer them elsewhere because those clients have unappealing characteristics. There may
be a family where sexual abuse is occurring. That abuse must stop. Likewise, there may be a community
where the juvenile crime rate is skyrocketing. Something needs to be done. Generalist practice does not
imply that every problem can be solved, although it does mean that some of them can be solved or at
least alleviated. Generalist practitioners are equipped with a repertoire of skills to help them identify and
examine problems. They then make choices about where their efforts can be best directed.

2.) Targeting the External Environment for Change

The second aspect that makes social work unique involves targeting the environment for change. The
system that social workers need “to change or influence in order to accomplish (their) goals” is called the
target system or target of change (Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, & Strom-Gottfried, 2013; Pincus &
Minahan, 1973, p. 58). Targets of change are not limited to individuals or families. Sometimes, services
are unavailable or excessively difficult to obtain, social policies are unfair, or people are oppressed by
other people. Administrators and people in power do not always have the motivation or insight to
initiate needed change. Social workers must look at where change is essential outside the individual and
work with the environment to effect that change.

For example, consider a large northern city where homelessness has become a major problem. Loss of
industry to other locations where production is cheaper, unemployment, and lack of low-income housing
have caused the homelessness problem to escalate. Many people have run out of resources and have
few options. They have been forced into homelessness. A social worker concerned about this issue might
strive to identify other individuals in the community, such as professionals, politicians, and other
community leaders, who are also concerned about this problem. Such people might include public social
services administrators, social workers in other agencies, leaders of charitable organizations and
churches, and faculty and students in the social work departments of area universities. The social worker
initiating change could identify these individuals, contact them, and call a meeting to discuss plans.
Established goals might then include improving “community awareness and acceptance of the problem
of homelessness,” establishment of “emergency shelter space for homeless people,” exploration of the
possibility of developing “long-term . . . transitional and low-priced housing arrangements for homeless
families,” and enhanced “coordination of existing services for homeless people” (Alexander, 2004, p.
135). Here the community would be the target of change on the behalf of people in need, namely the
homeless population.

3.) Advocacy

The third aspect that makes social work unique is related to targeting the environment. Namely, social
workers often find the need to advocate for their clients. Advocacy is the act of “representing,
championing, or defending the rights of others” (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2015, p. 372). It involves actively
intervening in order to help clients get what they need. Most frequently, this intervention focuses on
“the relationship between the client and an unresponsive ‘system’” (Epstein, 1981, p. 8). Clients have
specified needs. Social agencies, organizations, or communities may not be meeting these needs. These
unresponsive systems must be pressured to make changes so needs can be met.

Advocacy is an implementation strategy in the Generalist Intervention Model (GIM). It is the means the
worker chooses as the most effective way of bringing about change. Because it is more complex and
potentially more problematic than other approaches, advocacy must be carefully considered during the
assessment and planning phases. We will share some general thoughts to consider as you contemplate a
situation where advocacy may be required

Case Advocacy, as the name implies, refers to activity on behalf of a single case. It is usually employed in
situations where the individual is in conflict with an organization, perhaps over benefits that have been
denied.

Cause advocacy involves social workers’ efforts to address an issue of overriding importance to some
client group. The emphasis on cause means that this type of advocacy affects multiple groups of clients
or potential clients. It is also sometimes called class advocacy, because it benefits groups of people who
are struggling with the same issue.
4.) Professional Values and Ethics

The fourth aspect that makes social work unique is its emphasis on and adherence to a core of
professional values, the Social Work Code of Ethics.

5.) Partnerships with Clients

The fifth aspect making social work unique is related to the core of social work values and how
important it is for clients to make their own decisions. Social workers do not lead people into specific
ways of thinking or acting. Rather, they practice in a partnership with clients, making and implementing
plans together. Most other professions emphasize the authority and expertise of the professional, on the
one hand, and the subordinate status of the client as recipient of services, on the other.

6.) Adherence to Professional Standards

The sixth aspect that makes social work unique involves how social work education is held accountable
regarding specifically what makes social workers competent in their practice.

What Is Generalist Practice?

Generalist social work practice may involve almost any helping situation. A generalist practitioner may be
called upon to help a homeless family, a physically abused child, a pregnant teenager, a sick older adult
unable to care for him- or herself any longer, an alcoholic parent, a community that is trying to address
its drug abuse problem, or a public assistance agency struggling to amend its policies to conform to new
federal regulations. Therefore, generalist practitioners must be well prepared to address many kinds of
difficult situations.

The social work profession has struggled with the idea of generalist practice for many years. In the past,
new practitioners were educated in one main skill area (e.g., work with individuals, groups, or
communities) or one area of practice (e.g., children and families, or policy and administration). A
generalist practitioner needs competency in a wide variety of areas instead of being limited to a single
track.

The Definition of Generalist Practice

The social work profession has struggled with the idea of generalist practice for many years. In the past,
new practitioners were educated in one main skill area (e.g., work with individuals, groups, or
communities) or one area of practice (e.g., children and families, or policy and administration). A
generalist practitioner needs competency in a wide variety of areas instead of being limited to a single
track.

1. Acquisition of an eclectic knowledge base

A. Fields of practice B. Systems theories C. The ecological perspective

D. Human behavior and the social environment E. Social welfare policy and policy practice

F. Social work practice G. Research-informed practice and practice-informed research

H. Values and principles that guide practice

2. Acquisition of professional values and application of professional ethics

A. PASWI Social Workers Code of Ethics

B. International Federation of Social Workers/ International Association of Schools of Social Work Ethics
in Social Work, Statement of Principles

C. Awareness of personal values D. Management of ethical dilemmas

3. Use of a wide range of practice skills

A. Skills for working with individuals and families (micro skills)

B. Skills for working with families and groups (mezzo skills)

C. Skills for working with organizations and communities (macro skills)

4. Orientation to target systems of any size: A. Micro B. Mezzo C. Macro

5. Primary value principle: Emphasis on client empowerment, strengths, and resiliency

6. Primary value principle: The importance of human diversity

7. Primary value principle: Advocacy for human rights, and the advancement of social, economic, and
environmental justice

8. Context: Work within an organizational structure

9. Process: Assumption of a wide range of professional roles A. Counselor B. Educator C. Broker D. Case
manager E. Mobilizer F. Mediator G. Facilitator H. Integrator/Coordinator I. Manager J. Initiator K.
Negotiator L. Spokesperson M. Organizer N. Consultant O. Advocate

10. Process: Application of critical thinking skills

11. Process: Incorporation of research-informed practice

12. Process: Use of planned change

Three Principles Involving Values That Characterize Generalist Practice

Three primary principles involving values characterize generalist practice. The first of these principles
involving values entails an emphasis on client empowerment, strengths, and resiliency (concept 5 in the
definition of generalist practice).

● Empowerment is “the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that

individuals can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). It concerns ensuring
that others have the right to power, ability, and authority to achieve self-determination (each individual’s
right to make his or her own decisions).
● Strengths include any “capacities, resources, and assets” that can be accessed to increase
empowerment (Saleebey, 2013, p. 102).

● Resiliency is the ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from
adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship (Clark,
2013; Glicken, 2006).

The second principle involving values that is emphasized in generalist practice is the importance of
“understand[ing] how [human] diversity and difference characterize and shape the human experience
and are critical to the formation of identity” (CSWE, 2015, p. 7) (concept 6). Human diversity entails
multiple factors, including “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender
identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality,
sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (CSWE, 2015, p. 7).

The third principle involving values that is accentuated in generalist practice

concerns advocacy for human rights and the advancement of social, economic,
and environmental justice (CSWE, 2015, p. 7) (concept 7).

Organizational structure is the formal and informal manner in which tasks and
responsibilities, lines of authority, channels of communication, and dimensions
of power are established and coordinated within an organization. As a
generalist practitioner, you will work in this environment with all its
constraints, requirements, and rules. Thus, the figure on the left pictures you,
the generalist practitioner, as a rectangle within this large square. In that same
square you see the concepts Knowledge, Values, and Skills. These illustrate
that you bring to your job a broad knowledge base, professional values, and a
wide range of skills.

The concentric circles at the bottom of the figure illustrate your potential
target systems. As we have established, generalist practitioners may choose to
work with an individual (micro system), a family (micro/mezzo system),4 a
group (mezzo system), or an organization or community (macro systems) as
the target of their change efforts. These systems are positioned in concentric
circles according to their respective sizes.

An arrow flows from the Organizational Structure square down to the Target System circles. This
indicates that you, as a generalist practitioner, will apply your knowledge, skills, and values to help
change a micro, mezzo, or macro system.

Other arrows point from concepts on the right and left to the central Application arrow. This means that
generalist practitioners apply the concepts represented by the arrows as they undertake generalist
practice. Principles/Values concepts, portrayed on the left, include empowerment, human diversity,
advocacy for human rights, and the pursuit of social and economic justice. Social workers also apply the
processes inherent in generalist practice. These, depicted on the right, consist of the assumption of
various professional roles, use of critical thinking skills, incorporation of research-informed practice, and
the undertaking of the planned change process.
Note that terms can sometimes be confusing. This book focuses on generalist practice and assumes that
social workers are generalists. Therefore, the terms generalist social worker, worker, generalist
practitioner, and practitioner will be used interchangeably throughout this book to refer to professionals
undertaking generalist social work practice.

An Eclectic Knowledge Base

Acquisition of an eclectic knowledge base is the 1st concept involved in the definition of generalist
practice. The term eclectic refers to selecting concepts, theories, and ideas from a wide range of
perspectives and practice approaches. Social work has a growing and progressive knowledge base. More
and more is being researched and written about how social workers can become increasingly effective in
helping people solve problems. Additionally, the field has borrowed much knowledge from other fields
such as psychology and sociology. Social work then applies this knowledge to practice situations.
Knowledge involves understanding the dynamics of people’s situations and recognizing the skills that
work best in specific situations.

We have emphasized that generalist social workers need a broad knowledge base because they are
called upon to help people solve such a wide variety of problems. One important content area in the
knowledge base that is discussed here involves fields of practice. A second important content area
concerns the “theoretical frameworks” of systems theory and the ecological perspective (CSWE, 2015, p.
9). These two frameworks are intended to help guide the processes involved in social work practice,
including engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation (CSWE, 2015, pp. 8–9). In addition, the
social work profession considers it necessary that you assimilate knowledge and develop competencies
related to the following content areas: human behavior and the social environment; social welfare policy
and policy practice; social work practice; research; and values and principles guiding generalist practice
(CSWE, 2015). We’ve established that a competency is the proven ability to demonstrate the acquisition
of sufficient knowledge, skills, and values in a designated area in order to practice effective social work.

Fields of Practice

There are a number of ways to classify the kinds of knowledge generalist social workers need. One is by
fields of practice, broad areas in social work that address certain types of populations and needs. Each
field of practice is a labyrinth of typical human problems and the services attempting to address them.
Some fields of practice currently characterizing the profession include families and children, mental
health, schools, aging, and substance abuse. Other fields of practice are occupational social work
(focusing on work in employee assistance programs or directed toward organizational change), rural
social work (addressing the unique problems of people living in rural areas), police social work
(emphasizing work within police, courthouse, and jail settings to provide services to crime victims), and
forensic social work (dealing with the law, educating lawyers, and serving as expert witnesses) (Barker,
2014).

Generalist social workers require information about people who need help in each of these areas.
Workers also must be knowledgeable about the services available to meet needs and the major issues
related to each area. On one hand, a social worker may be called upon to work with a problem that
clearly falls within one field of practice. On the other hand, a problem may involve several of these fields.

Major Concepts in Systems Theory

In order to understand how a systems model can provide the framework for intervention, one must
understand some of the major terms involved. These terms include system, subsystem, boundaries,
dynamic, interaction, input, output, homeostasis, and equifinality (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016).

We defined a system as a set of orderly, interrelated elements that forms a functional whole. Several
aspects of this definition are important. The idea that a system is a “set of elements” means that a
system can be composed of any type of things as long as these things have some relationship to each
other. Things may be people or they may be mathematical symbols. Regardless, the set of elements must
be orderly and arranged in some pattern that is not simply random.

Note that a subsystem is a secondary or subordinate system—a system within a system. For example, a
subsystem within a family of five (mother, father, and three children) is the parental subsystem that
includes the mother and father. Another significant term is boundary, an invisible or symbolic “line of
demarcation that separates an individual, a subsystem, or a system from outside surroundings”
(Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2013, p. 101). For instance, boundaries define who is included in any family
(e.g., parents and children) and who is not (e.g., neighbors).

Systems constantly interact with each other. Interaction involves mutual involvement and
communication with other people and groups in the environment.

There is a constant flow of input and output among systems. Input is the energy, information, or
communication flow received from other systems; output is the same flow emitted from a system to the
environment or to other systems.

We also have homeostasis, which refers to the tendency for a system to maintain a relatively stable,
constant state of equilibrium or balance.

Equifinality refers to the fact that there are many different means to the same end. In other words, there
are many ways of viewing a problem and, thus, many potential means of solving it.

Intersectionality of Diverse Factors

The concept of intersectionality involves the idea that people are complex and can belong to multiple,
overlapping, diverse groups. “The intersectional perspective acknowledges the breadth of human
experiences, instead of conceptualizing social relations and identities separately in terms of either race
or class or gender or age or sexual orientation”; rather, an intersectional approach focuses on the
“interactional affects” of belonging to multiple groups (Murphy, Hunt, Zajicek, Norris, & Hamilton, 2009,
p. 2). People may experience injustice for a combination of reasons. The concept of intersectionality
“underscores the complex nature of cultural and personal identities and human experiences that cannot
be defined simply by one dimension of inequality or difference—either race or gender or sexual
orientation or ability. The social worker, who is involved in working with individuals, families, groups, and
communities belonging to diverse groups, must develop the cultural competence to work with people at
the intersections of the multiple dimensions of diversity” (Murphy et al., 2009, p. 42).

Dimensions of Diversity

Age: Some period of time during a person’s lifespan. Age is often considered an important aspect of
human diversity for older adults as they experience ageism, discrimination based on preconceived
notions about older people, regardless of their individual qualities and capabilities.
Class (or social class): People’s status or ranking in society with respect to such standards as “relative
wealth, power, prestige, educational level, or family background” (Barker, 2014, p. 396).

Culture: “A way of life including widespread values (about what is good and bad), beliefs (about what is
true), and behavior (what people do every day)” (italics deleted) (Macionis, 2013, p. 5).

Disability: “Any physical or mental impairment [or ongoing health or mental health condition] that
substantially limits one or more major life activities”; these activities include “seeing, hearing, speaking,
walking, breathing, performing manual tasks, learning, caring for oneself, and working” (U.S. Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008, p. 1). Ability is the capacity to perform and get things done
in various activities.

Ethnicity: The affiliation with a large group of people who have “common racial, national, tribal,
religious, linguistic, or cultural origin or background” (Mish, 2008, p. 429).

Gender: The behavioral, social, and psychological traits and characteristics generally associated with
being female or male.

Gender expression: The manners in which we express ourselves to others in ways related to gender that
include both behavior and personality.

Gender identity: A person’s internal psychological self-concept of being either a male or a female, or,
possibly, some combination of both (Gilbert, 2008).

Immigration status: A person’s position in terms of legal rights and residency when entering and residing
in a country that is not that person’s legal country of origin.

Marital status: The state of being legally married or legally unmarried.

Political ideology: The “relatively coherent system of ideas (beliefs, traditions, principles, and myths)
about human nature, institutional arrangements, and social processes” that indicate how a government
should be run and what principles that government should support (Abramovitz, 2010, p. 131).

Race: The category of people who share a common descent and genetic origin that may be distinguished
by “certain physical traits,” or “interests, habits, or characteristics” (Mish, 2008, p. 1024).

Religion/Spirituality: Religion involves people’s spiritual beliefs concerning the origin of, character of, and
reason for being, usually based on the existence of some higher power or powers, that often involves
designated rituals and provides direction for what is considered moral or right. Spirituality, a related
concept, “includes one’s values, beliefs, mission, awareness subjectivity, experience, sense of purpose
and direction, and a kind of striving toward something greater than oneself. It may or may not include a
deity” (Frame, 2003, p. 3).

Sex: The biological designation of being either female or male that usually is based on sexual anatomy,
including reproductive organs and chromosomal makeup.

Sexual orientation: Sexual and romantic attraction to persons of one or both genders.

Achievement of Cultural Competency

Another critical notion related to human diversity is cultural competency or cultural competence, “the
set of knowledge and skills that a social worker must develop in order to be effective with multicultural
clients” (Lum, 1999, p. 3). Culture as “a way of life including widespread values (about what is good and
bad), beliefs (about what is true), and behavior (what people do every day)” (Macionis, 2013, p. 5). It
includes language, religious beliefs, art, music, rules about appropriate behavior, and expectations for
interpersonal relationships. Aspects of culture are often related to people’s ethnic, racial, and spiritual
heritage. People from different cultural backgrounds may be at risk of discrimination and oppression
from other dominating groups.

Assuming Many Professional Roles

A role is a culturally expected behavior pattern for a person having a specified status or being involved in
a designated social relationship.

Generalist practitioner roles may involve practice with individuals, families, groups, organizations, or
communities. Some of the roles characterizing generalist practitioners are briefly summarized. These
include counselor, educator, broker, case manager, mobilizer, mediator, facilitator, integrator/coordinator,
manager, initiator, negotiator, spokesperson, organizer, consultant, and advocate, defined as follows:

• Counselor: One who provides guidance to clients and assists them in a planned change or
problem-solving process. For example, a worker might help a teenager decide which form of
contraception is best for her.
• Educator: One who gives information and teaches skills to others. For instance, a practitioner
might teach parents child management skills.
• Broker: One who links client systems to needed resources. For example, a worker might refer a
client to a substance abuse treatment center for inpatient treatment.
• Case manager: A practitioner who, on the behalf of a specific client, coordinates needed services
provided by any number of agencies, organizations, or facilities. For instance, a worker might
coordinate the many services needed by a quadriplegic living in a group home.
• Mobilizer: One who identifies and convenes community people and resources to identify “unmet
community needs” and “effect changes for the better in their community” (Halley, Kopp, &
Austin, 1998, p. 179). For example, a practitioner might encourage community residents to band
together and start a drug education program for residents’ children.
• Mediator: One who resolves arguments or disagreements among individuals, families, groups,
organizations, or communities in conflict. For instance, a worker might serve as a go-between to
establish an agreement between an agency wanting to start a group home for people with
developmental disabilities and neighborhood residents who violently oppose having the facility
in their neighborhood.
• Facilitator: One who guides a group experience. For instance, a practitioner might run a support
group for young women with bulimia.10
• Integrator/Coordinator: One who integrates or coordinates people by bringing them together
and organizing their performance. Integration is the process of assembling different elements to
form a cohesive whole. Coordination involves bringing components together in some kind of
organized manner. For example, a worker might coordinate community residents as they pursue
the goal of cleaning up and developing a local park.
 • Manager: One who assumes some level of administrative responsibility for a social services
agency or other organizational system.
• Initiator: One who calls attention to an issue. For instance, a social worker may recognize that a
policy has the potential to create problems for particular clients and bring this to the attention of
her supervisor.
• Negotiator: One who represents an organization or group trying to wrestle something from
another group.
• Spokesperson: One who is authorized to speak on behalf of others.
• Organizer: One who coordinates individuals or groups to pursue some designated function(s).
• Consultant: One who provides advice, suggestions, or ideas to another person, group, or
organization.
• Advocate: One who steps forward and speaks out on the behalf of clients in order to promote
fair and equitable treatment or gain needed resources. For example, a worker might meet with
an administrator to change an agency policy on that client’s behalf.

Critical thinking is (1) the careful scrutiny of what is stated as true or what appears to be true and the
resulting expression of an opinion or conclusion based on that scrutiny and (2) the creative formulation
of an opinion or conclusion when presented with a question, problem, or issue (Kirst-Ashman, 2017).
Critical thinking concentrates on “the process of reasoning” (Gambrill & Gibbs, 2009, p. 3). It stresses
how individuals think about the truth inherent in a situation or statement or how they analyze an issue
to formulate their own conclusions. As Gambrill and Gibbs (2009) so aptly state, “Critical thinkers
question what others take for granted” (p. 19). In generalist
practice, critical thinking involves seriously thinking about a
client system’s problems, issues, and macro environment in
order to determine how to proceed in the helping process.

THE GENERALIST INTERVENTION MODEL (GIM)

Our definition of generalist practice provides the foundation

for the Generalist Intervention Model (GIM). GIM is a
practice model providing step-by-step direction concerning
how to undertake the planned change process, which is
generally directed at addressing problems.

Three major features characterize GIM. First, GIM assumes

that workers acquire an eclectic knowledge base, a wide
range of skills to target systems of any size, and a
professional values base, all emphasized in our definition of
generalist practice. GIM’s second major feature is its core
seven-step planned change process (illustrated in the Figure
below), which emphasizes the assessment and use of client
strengths. The third key feature is its generalist approach,
which means virtually any problem may be analyzed and addressed from multiple levels of intervention.
GIM is oriented toward addressing problems and issues that involve not only individuals, but also
groups, organizations, communities, and even major social policies. In other words, the model involves
individuals, families, groups, organizations, or communities as targets of change.
Planned Change Steps in GIM

Regardless of what kind of problem is addressed, the planned change process presented here involves
seven major steps.

Step 1. Engagement: Engage the Client System Engagement, the first step in GIM, is the initial period
where you, as a practitioner, orient yourself to the problem at hand and begin to establish
communication and a relationship with the client and others also addressing the problem. Regardless of
whether you pursue micro, mezzo, or macro change, you must establish rapport or a harmonious
relationship with clients and target systems in order to communicate and get things done. Engagement is
based on the acquisition of a range of skills for working with individuals. Both the words you speak
(verbal communication) and your coinciding actions and expressions (nonverbal communication) can
engage others in the helping process. Nonverbal communication conveys information in ways other than
spoken words (e.g., eye contact, facial expressions, body positioning).

Many other dimensions are involved in engagement. Your overall demeanor, including your ability to
convey warmth, empathy, and genuineness, can enhance engagement.13 Likewise, how you introduce
yourself and arrange an initial meeting’s setting affect the engagement process. Other engagement skills
include alleviating initial client anxiety and introducing your purpose and role.

Remember the HALT framework? Is the client hungry, angry, lonely/lost, or threatened?

Step 2. Assessment: Assess the Client and Situation According to Siporin, assessment is the “differential,
individualized, and accurate identification and evaluation of problems, people, and situations and of
their interrelations, to serve as a sound basis for differential helping intervention” (1975, p. 224).
Another definition simply describes
assessment as “knowing, understanding,
evaluating, individualizing, or figuring
out” (Meyer, 1995, p. 260). For our
purposes, assessment, the second step in
GIM, is the investigation and
determination of variables affecting an
identified problem or issue as viewed
from micro, mezzo, or macro
perspectives. First, assessment refers to
gathering relevant information about a
problem so that decisions can be made
about what to do to solve it. Second,
assessment can involve preparation for
intervention at any level of practice. As
Figure at the right indicates, assessment
includes the following four substeps: 1.
Identify your client. 2. Assess the client-in-
situation from micro, mezzo, macro, and
diversity perspectives. 3. Cite information
about client problems and needs. 4. Identify client strengths.

Step 3. Planning: Formulate a Plan for the Intervention Process The third step in GIM involves planning
what to do. Planning, the process of establishing specific strategies for action, follows assessment in the
problem-solving process. Assessment sets the stage for the intervention, whereas planning specifies
what should be done. As shown in the figure below, planning involves the following eight substeps: 1.
Work with the client. 2. Prioritize problems. 3. Translate problems into needs. 4. Evaluate levels of
intervention for each need. 5. Establish goals. 6. Specify objectives. 7. Specify action steps. 8. Formalize a
contract.

Step 4. Implementation: Put the Plan into Action The fourth step in GIM involves implementation of the
intervention, the actual doing of the plan during the intervention process Client and worker follow their
plan to achieve their goals. Progress during implementation must be continually monitored and
assessed. Sometimes, new issues, situations, and conditions require that the plan be changed.

Step 5. Evaluation: Evaluate Results and Effectiveness Evaluation of implementation, the fifth step in
GIM, is the process of determining the extent to which a particular intervention was effective. Evaluation
is critical for accountability, and social workers must be accountable. That is, they must prove that their
interventions have been useful. Each goal is evaluated in terms of the extent to which it has been
achieved. The decision then must be made about whether the case should be terminated or reassessed
to establish new goals. Evaluation techniques are becoming increasingly more effective. They involve the
application of research principles to generalist practice.

Step 6. Termination: Conclude the Planned Change Intervention Process The sixth step in GIM concerns
termination, the ending of the professional relationship between a client and a social worker The
worker-client relationship must eventually come to an end. To get up one day and, out of the clear blue
sky, say “well, good-bye” is not a good ending for a worker. Termination in generalist practice involves
specific skills and techniques. This fact is true regardless of the level of intervention.

The worker-client relationship must eventually come to an end. To get up one day and, out of the clear
blue sky, say “well, good-bye” is not a good ending for a worker. Termination in generalist practice
involves specific skills and techniques. This fact is true regardless of the level of intervention

The most effective terminations, regardless of client system, follow a planned, steady progression. Social
workers need to acknowledge that endings are near before they abruptly occur. They must encourage
clients to share feelings about the termination and in turn share their own. Additionally, practitioners
must clearly identify whatever progress has been made. This process increases the chance that the client
will use what has been learned during this intervention to help solve other problems in the future.

Step 7. Follow-Up: Reexamine the Situation and Progress Made Follow-up is the seventh and final step in
GIM. Follow-up, is the reexamination of a client’s situation at some point after the intervention is
completed (Eaton & Roberts, 2009; Knox & Roberts, 2009). Its purpose is to monitor the ongoing effects
of treatment. Many times, this step is the most difficult to follow. Caseloads may be too heavy and too
filled with crises. The worker may be distracted by other issues and demands. Follow-up information
might be hard to get. Follow-up is an important step in the intervention process. It involves checking to
find out whether clients have maintained progress and are still functioning well on their own. Does a
client need to be reassessed for another intervention?

Skills for Working with Individuals and the Generalist Intervention Model (GIM)

Skills for working with individuals (micro-practice skills) involve relationship building, the effective use of
verbal and nonverbal behavior, and proficiency in interviewing. They focus on your ability to relate to
other individuals and communicate effectively. The planned change process entails ongoing interaction
and communication with many individuals in your work environment, including clients, colleagues,
administrators, and other decision makers. We have established that skills for working with individuals
form the basis for working with groups and with larger systems such as organizations and communities.
You must effectively interact with individuals in the context of groups, organizations, and communities in
order to get anything done. Skills for working with individuals are used throughout each phase of the
planned change process—engagement, assessment, planning, implementation, evaluation, and follow-
up—whether you are pursuing micro, mezzo, or macro change.

Engagement requires establishing an initial relationship with an individual or each person in a group of
individuals, regardless of what type of change you seek. During this phase, you use verbal and nonverbal
skills to establish rapport and introduce your purpose and role. For example, a practitioner working at
Planned Parenthood must establish an initial rapport with a client who may be feeling embarrassed or
frightened. The client may be seeking some form of contraception or be distressed by an unwanted
pregnancy. The worker must use micro skills to make the client feel comfortable enough to communicate
her concerns and to begin looking at alternatives. The initial use of effective micro skills is critical if the
worker eventually decides to focus on the client’s individual plans (micro intervention), suggest an
educational group (mezzo intervention), or pursue a statewide policy change concerning contraception
or abortion on the behalf of this client and others like her (macro intervention). The worker who
eventually pursues mezzo or macro intervention must use micro skills to establish rapport with
individuals in those settings in order to achieve mezzo or macro change.

Assessment, likewise, involves interaction and communication with other individuals regardless of
whether the planned change process involves individuals, families, groups, organizations, or
communities. Through it, you strive to solicit enough information about the issue or problem involved to
initiate positive change. You must talk with and relate to other individuals effectively in order to
accomplish this task. For example, consider a social worker at the AIDS Support Network (an agency
aimed at providing a range of services to people who are HIV-positive). The worker must gain
information about each client’s health, social, financial, and emotional conditions before the worker and
client can plan together what to do. Assessment proceeds after the initial engagement has been
successfully completed. The client must feel comfortable and safe with the worker. Micro skills are
necessary whether pursuing individual counseling with the client (micro intervention), working with the
client’s family or involving the client in a support network (mezzo intervention), or advocating for greater
resources on behalf of this client and others in similar situations (macro intervention). Change at any
level concerns interacting and communicating effectively with the individuals involved.

Similarly, the remaining steps in GIM—planning, implementation, evaluation, termination, and

followup—all require interaction and communication with other individuals. Planning involves working
integrally with the client to establish a plan of action. Implementation entails working with targeted
others in the environment to achieve the plan’s goals. For example, a plan might entail seeking financial
support for an older adult with failing health. This plan necessitates working directly with other
individuals who control the distribution of such support.

Evaluation concerns determining whether or not a plan has been effective. This often entails using micro
skills to communicate with the client and others involved in the change process to procure information
and validate accomplishments. Termination involves using micro skills to bring the worker-client
relationship and change process to an end in a considerate, planned, positive manner. Finally,
practitioners use micro skills during follow-up to solicit information regarding how planned change goals
have been maintained.

Warmth

Displaying warmth involves conveying a feeling of interest, concern, well-being, and affection to another
individual. Warmth is a vehicle for acceptance. “Respectful and valuing statements about the client are
accompanied by a smile, appropriate touching, pleasant surprise, and enthusiasm for the client’s
rendition of personal experience” (Keefe & Maypole, 1983, p. 62).

Warmth can be communicated to a client both verbally and nonverbally. Such behaviors can be defined,
practiced, and learned. The following are examples of verbally communicating warmth:

● “Hello. It’s good to meet you.”

● “I’m glad we have the chance to talk about this.”

● “It’s pleasant talking with you.”

● “It’s good to see you again.”

● “Please sit down. Can I get you a cup of coffee?”

These are just a few of the many statements you can make to show that you respect the client and are
glad he or she is there. These statements help to convey a sense of concern for the client and for the
client’s well-being. Similarly, there are many ways to communicate warmth to a client nonverbally. We
have discussed how eye contact, attentive listening, body positioning, and tonal quality can be all used
to a worker’s advantage.

Empathy

Empathy is a second basic characteristic that has been found to enhance a worker-client relationship.
Empathy is crucial for the helping process to be effective. Empathy involves not only being in tune with
how a client feels, but also conveying to that client that you understand how he or she feels. It does not
necessarily mean you think the client’s feelings are positive or negative, nor does it mean that you are
having the same feelings yourself. Empathy is purely acknowledgment that you understand the client’s
situation.

Establishing initial rapport is only the first among a number of reasons for employing empathy, as there
are a number of other reasons. Empathy enables the worker to keep up with the client and the client’s
problems and concerns throughout the worker-client relationship. Empathizing with positive emotions
can also be helpful. For example, if a client appears exceptionally happy one day, an empathic response
may get at the reason. Maybe some problem has already been solved. Perhaps a new client strength can
be identified that can be used in the change process. Acknowledging positives may help in the
maintenance of the worker-client relationship.

Nonverbal communication can also be used to enhance empathy. A worker’s gestures can mirror how a
client feels. For instance, furrowing the brow can convey a serious focusing of attention and reflect a
client’s grave concern over some issue. Nonverbal communication can also emphasize or enhance verbal
empathic responses. For example, consider a client who appears happy. Smiling while making an
empathic verbal response indicates more convincingly to the client that you really understand how the
client feels.

Genuineness

The third quality found to enhance client-worker relationships is genuineness, the honest, natural, and
open expression of yourself. Genuineness simply means that you continue to be yourself despite the fact
that you are working to accomplish goals in your professional role.

Personality refers to the unique configuration of qualities and attributes that make you an individual.
Some people have effervescent, outgoing personalities. Others have more subdued, quiet
temperaments. Some people relate to others using a sense of humor, while others prefer to relate in a
more serious manner. The point is that there is no one type of personality that is best for a professional
role. Rather, it is more important that you be yourself and not pretend to be something or someone that
you are not. Genuineness conveys a sense of honesty to clients and makes them feel that you are
someone they can trust.

Client Self-Determination and Empowerment

In addition to demonstrating warmth, empathy, and genuineness, maintaining a commitment to client

self-determination enhances a positive relationship between worker and client (Blundo, 2008; Hepworth
et al., 2013).

Self-determination is each individual’s right to make his or her own decisions. An assumption about self-
determination is that social workers have the responsibility to help clients make the best informed
choices and decisions possible. This responsibility means practitioners must use their skills to provide
clients with necessary information. Workers must also assist clients through the decision-making process
by helping them identify the positive and negative consequences of their various alternatives.

Maximizing client self-determination to whatever extent possible is a practitioner’s responsibility.

Sometimes, this responsibility is more difficult, such as when a client is mentally incompetent or intends
to hurt him- or herself or others.

Self-determination is related to empowerment, a major concept in the definition of generalist practice.

We have defined empowerment as the “process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power
so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). In micro
practice and during the interviewing process, clients’ involvement, input, and participation are
paramount to any intervention’s effectiveness.