CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae, collectively known as microbes.

Relevance of Microbiology to Nursing

●​ Understanding infection control in healthcare settings.

●​ Differentiating between harmful and harmless microorganisms.
●​ Applying microbiology knowledge to drug production, sterilization, and aseptic techniques.
●​ Handling specimens and patients with infectious diseases.

Branches of Microbiology Koch’s Postulates (1884)

By Taxonomy: 1.​ The microorganism must be found in all cases of the disease but
not in healthy individuals.
●​ Bacteriology – Study of bacteria (Anton Van Leeuwenhoek’s first 2.​ It must be isolated and grown in pure culture.
examination of tooth scrapings). 3.​ The cultured microbe must cause disease when introduced into a
●​ Virology – Study of viruses (Dmitri Iwanoski’s discovery of viruses healthy organism.
during the Golden Age of Microbiology). 4.​ The same microorganism must be isolated from the newly infected
●​ Parasitology – Study of parasites, including protozoa and bacterial host.
parasites.
●​ Mycology – Study of fungi, molds, and yeasts.
●​ Immunology – Study of the immune system and its interactions
with pathogens. Classification of Microorganisms
●​ Nematology – Study of roundworms (nematodes).
●​ Phycology – Study of algae. Taxonomy – Systematic classification of living organisms.
●​ Protozoology – Study of protozoa (single-celled organisms like
Key Contributors:
amoebae).
●​ Aristotle – Classified organisms into plants and animals.
By Application:
●​ Carolus Linnaeus – Developed the binomial nomenclature (e.g.,
●​ Agricultural Microbiology – Interaction of microbes with plants Staphylococcus aureus).
and soil. ●​ Ernst Haeckel – Proposed three kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, and
●​ Food Microbiology – Study of foodborne pathogens and Protista.
fermentation processes. ●​ Robert Whittaker – Introduced the five-kingdom classification:
●​ Medical Microbiology – Study of microbes causing human 1.​ Monera (Bacteria, Archaea)
diseases. 2.​ Protista (Protozoa, Algae)
●​ Microbial Biotechnology – Industrial use of microbes in consumer 3.​ Fungi (Yeasts, Molds)
products. 4.​ Animalia (Multicellular Eukaryotes)
●​ Pharmaceutical Microbiology – Study of microorganisms in drug 5.​ Plantae (Plants with cellulose cell walls)
production (e.g., vaccines, antibiotics). ●​ Carl Woese – Proposed the three-domain system:
1.​ Archaea – Primitive bacteria-like organisms.
2.​ Bacteria – True bacteria.
3.​ Eukarya – Includes Protista, Fungi, Animalia, and Plantae.
History of Microbiology

Key Pioneers:

●​ Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) – First to observe bacteria

("animalcules"), considered the Father of Microbiology.
●​ Francesco Redi (1668) – Disproved spontaneous generation
theory with his maggot experiment.
●​ John Needham (1745) – Supported spontaneous generation by
observing microbial growth in boiled broth.
●​ Lazzaro Spallanzani – Contradicted Needham, showing microbes
came from the air, not spontaneous generation.
●​ Robert Hooke – Coined the term “cell” and contributed to
microscopy.
●​ Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) – Father of Bacteriology, developed
pasteurization, vaccines, and disproved spontaneous generation.
●​ Robert Koch (1843–1910) – Developed Koch’s Postulates,
proving that specific microbes cause specific diseases (e.g.,
tuberculosis, anthrax, cholera).
CHAPTER 2 BACTERIAL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION

THE FIVE BASIC GROUPS OF MICROORGANISMS Growth Phases

1.​ Bacteria (Prokaryotes) 1.​ Lag Phase: No division, bacteria adapt to environment.
2.​ Fungi, Molds, Yeasts, Algae (Eukaryotic Microorganisms) 2.​ Log Phase: Rapid multiplication, most metabolically active.
3.​ Viruses (Acellular, require a host to replicate) 3.​ Stationary Phase: Growth slows, waste accumulates.
4.​ Protozoa (Unicellular, animal-like protists, often parasitic) 4.​ Death Phase: More cells die than replicate.
○​ Sarcodina – Moves using pseudopodia (Amoeba).
Endospores
○​ Mastigophora – Moves using flagella (Giardia).
○​ Sporozoa – Non-motile, complex life cycle (Plasmodium). ●​ Dormant, resistant structures for survival in harsh conditions.
○​ Ciliata – Moves using cilia (Paramecium). ●​ Examples: Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus anthracis.
5.​ Metazoa (Helminths - Parasitic Worms)
○​ Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) – Includes Cestodes
STAINING TECHNIQUES
(Tapeworms) and Trematodes (Flukes).
○​ Nemathelminthes (Roundworms) – Includes Nematodes Gram Staining
(Ascaris, Hookworms, Trichinella).
●​ Gram-Positive (+): Thick peptidoglycan layer, stains purple (e.g.,
PROKARYOTIC CELLS: STRUCTURE AND Staphylococcus).
CHARACTERISTICS ●​ Gram-Negative (-): Thin peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane
with endotoxins, stains pink (e.g., E. coli).
Bacteria
Acid-Fast Staining
●​ Single-celled, no true nucleus (DNA in nucleoid).
●​ Cell wall contains peptidoglycan (except Mycoplasma, which ●​ Used for bacteria with waxy, lipid-rich cell walls (mycolic acid).
lacks a cell wall). ●​ Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
●​ Reproduction: Binary fission (asexual).
●​ Movement Structures: Capsule Staining
○​ Flagella – Motility
●​ Demonstrates the presence of protective bacterial capsules.
○​ Pili – Genetic exchange (sex pili), adhesion
●​ Example: Streptococcus pneumoniae (capsulated).
○​ Fimbriae – Attachment to host cells
●​ Capsule: Protects bacteria from immune responses.
MICROBIAL METABOLISM
Archaea
Types of Metabolism
●​ Prokaryotic but structurally distinct from bacteria.
●​ Lipolytic Bacteria: Break down fats (Pseudomonas).
●​ Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan.
●​ Saccharolytic Bacteria: Ferment sugars (Clostridium).
●​ Types:
●​ Proteolytic Bacteria: Break down proteins (Enterobacteriaceae).
○​ Methanogens – Produce methane gas.
○​ Halophiles – Thrive in high salt environments.
Enzymes
○​ Thermophiles – Thrive in extreme heat.
●​ Endoenzymes: Work inside the cell.
CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA ●​ Exoenzymes: Secreted to break down external nutrients.

Based on Shape (Morphology) BACTERIAL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

1.​ Cocci (Spherical): Diplococci, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Structure Function
Tetrads, Sarcinae.
2.​ Bacilli (Rod-Shaped): Diplobacilli, Streptobacilli, Palisade. Capsule Protects from immune system, helps in
3.​ Spiral-Shaped: Spirilla (rigid spiral), Spirochetes (flexible spiral). attachment.
4.​ Coccobacilli: Oval-shaped intermediate between cocci and bacilli.
Flagella Provides motility.
Based on Oxygen Requirement
Pili/Fimbriae Adherence, genetic exchange.
●​ Obligate Aerobes: Need oxygen (e.g., Mycobacterium
tuberculosis). Nucleoid Contains bacterial DNA.
●​ Obligate Anaerobes: Oxygen is toxic to them (e.g., Clostridium).
●​ Facultative Anaerobes: Can survive with or without oxygen. Plasmids Carry antibiotic resistance genes.
●​ Microaerophiles: Require low oxygen levels.
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis.
●​ Aerotolerant Anaerobes: Do not use oxygen but can tolerate it.
Endospores Survival in extreme conditions.
Based on Temperature Requirements
Cytoplasmic Regulates transport of materials.
●​ Psychrophiles: Cold-loving (0–20°C).
Membrane
●​ Mesophiles: Moderate temperature (20–45°C, most pathogens).
●​ Thermophiles: Heat-loving (45–80°C).
●​ Hyperthermophiles: Survive extreme heat (>80°C). IMPORTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS

Based on Nutrition Beneficial Roles

●​ Autotrophic (Self-Feeding): ●​ Decomposition (Recycling nutrients).

●​ Food production (Fermentation - cheese, yogurt).
○​ Photoautotrophs: Use light energy (e.g., Cyanobacteria).
●​ Genetic engineering & biotechnology.
○​ Chemoautotrophs: Use inorganic chemicals (e.g., ●​ Nitrogen fixation (Essential for plant growth).
Nitrosomonas).
●​ Heterotrophic (Feeds on Organic Matter): Harmful Effects
○​ Saprophytic: Decomposers, feed on dead matter.
○​ Parasitic: Live inside a host. ●​ Pathogens cause infectious diseases.
●​ Food spoilage & contamination.
○​ Symbiotic: Live in mutual relationship with host.
●​ Antibiotic resistance (Superbugs like MRSA).